Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2009 with funding from NCSU Libraries http://www.archive.org/details/biltmorelectureOOsche BILTMORE LECTURES ON SYLVICULTURE ALBANY PAN! SYNOPSIS OF PARAGRAPHS. CHAPIKK I Foundations of Sylviculture. Parm*ra|>h. II I III [aln l\ rlva. \ I \ I I \ II \ III D( ilturr. *t CHAPTBB II Th. *t. I\ ' \ I \l l ",1 \ 1 1 Mil tctual ; \l\ \\ I \\ I W Will \l\ \\ \ \\ 1 Wll Wll I \\l\ \ \\ \\\ I \\\n Prairie planting in particular. \\\lil Methodi 3 SYLVICULTl i; I. XXIX. Permanenl nurseries in particular. XXX. Seed planting in seed beds. XXXI. Transplanting in transplanting beds. XX XII. Protection of nurseries. XXXIII. Nursing in nurseries. XXXIV. Special nursery methods proclaimed by renowned sylvi- culturists. XXXV. Raising and planting hardwood seedlings on open ground. XXXVI. Raising and planting softwood seedlings on open ground. XXXVII. European results of planting experiments with American liardwoods. XXXVIII. European results of planting experiments with American softwoods. XXXIX. Difficulties of natural seed regeneration (Enesar). XL. Age of trees fit for natural seed regeneration (Enesai XLI. Methods of natural seed regeneration (Enesar). XLII. Types in which lumbering precedes natural seed regenera- tion. XLIII. Cleared compartment type. XLIV. Cleared strip type. XLV. Cleared group type. XLVI. Cleared selection type. XLVII. Types, in which lumbering coincides with natural seed regeneration. XLVIII. Shelterwood compartment type. XLIX. Shelterwood strip type. L. Shelterwood group type. LI. Shelterwood selection type. L1I. Types in which lumbering follows natural seed regenera- tion. LIII. Advance growth compartment type. LIV. Advance growth strip type. LV. Advance growth group type. LVI. Ad vane.' growth selection type. LVII. Regeneration of valuable species by natural seed regenera- tion with, amongsl and into companions of weedy character. LVIII. Pedagogy of the high forest. LTX. Cleaning in high forest. LX. Weeding in high forest. LXI. Improvement cut tin? in high forest. SYLVICULTURE. LXII. Thinning in high forest. LXIII. Priming in high forest. LXTV. Underplanting in high forest. LXV. Key to the forms of high forest. LXYL Critical remarks on high forest. LXV1I. High forest by species. CHAPTER III The Coppice Forest AS * rest. w LXVIII. Genesis of the coppice for LXIX. Pedagogy of the coppice forest LXX. Key to the forms of coppice forest. LXXI. Critical remarks on coppice forest. LXXII. Coppice forest by species. CHAPTER IV. The Coppice Under Standards Forest. LXXIII. Genesis of coppice under standards. LXXIV. Pedagogy of coppice under standards. LXXV. Key to the forms of coppice under standards. LXXVI. Critical remarks on coppice under standards. LXXYTL Coppice • under standards by species. CHAPTER V. Propagation of Forest Products Other Than Wood and Timber. LXXVIII. Raising of forest by-products. LXXIX. Combination of sylviculture and agriculture. 'JjmA*\ -r (?J^ J^-J HA*^*- t 0 ytxj-i(y^J^^\ -M /S~ iro-e f LECTURES ON SYLVICULTURE. ? CHAPTER I. FOUNDATIONS OF SILVICULTURE. Paragraph I. Introduction. Sylviculture means the raising and tending of forest products (wood, bark, deer, stock and other by-products). Sylviculture was practiced by the ancients only for pai'k or orchard purposes. The first writings on Sylviculture proper appear in the so-called " House Father Literature." Sylviculture as a discipline was developed by George L. Hartig, Henry Von Cotta and Christian Hundeshagon. European standard books on Sylviculture of more modern tenure are those of Charles Heyer (adapted by Schlich) and by Charles Gayer. European Sylviculture in word and work has, in the course of years, petrified into a set of recipes. It is high time for Sylvicul- ture to be taught and practiced on the basis of Plant Ecology. For America, European Sylviculture at the present moment is of no more use than Chinese Sylviculture, owing to the great eco- nomic differences separating the old from the new country. The ecological principles underlying Sylviculture are, obviously, identi- cal for all countries. The planting of trees on a large scale is, in this country, now out of the question, since the expense of planting an acre of land usually exceeds the value of an acre of forest. The modern owners of woodlands are not far sighted enough — possibly not credulous enough — to anticipate the arrival of European stumpage prices for a time at which plantations now started will have developed into mature trees. If we can assume that stumpage in this country will be as valuable in 1980 as it is now in Germany, France and England, then forest planting must be, at least, as remunerative here as it is in the old country (small soil value in the United States). 7 I Mffr ^^k^xA\ ^AsxA** ft+J>^~* <yo-*-^\ ^AjJ^r^L^\ SYLVICULTURE. Sylviculture as a discipline comprises the following themes: A. Ecological principles, facts and definitions. B. The genesis of the forest. C. The pedagogy of the forest. D. The sylviculture] forms. In the discussion of themes B, C. and D, a distinction is made betAveen the treatment of: 1. High forests. 2. Coppice forests. 3. Coppice under standards forests. Paragraph II. Ecological factors and their influence on the sylva. A. Definition. — Plant ecology is a branch of botany showing the dependence and adaptation of plant forms and plant life of and to the surrounding local factors (climate, soil, etc.). B. Natural laws govern the organization of the species and regulate the communal life (symbiosis) and messmateship (commeii- salism) of individuals with their own kin, with relatives and with other plans belonging to the same household and feeding at the same table. C. The most important ecological factors are: I. Air. Oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid, the main com- ponents of air, are essential for plant life. The relative proportion of the two integral parts, 79% N., 21% O., varies very little with altitude, latitude and elevation. Salt particles in the air near ocean and sulphuric acid in the air near melting works are very injurious to plant life. II. Light. Intensity depends on: Season. Latitude. Altitude. Direct insolation is said to be on the whole of less importance than diffused light (excepting polar regions). Light is not required for germination of seeds. Without light, however, there is no assimilation, and hence no possibility of tree life. Assimilation increases with increasing intensity of insolation; excessive insolation is, however, destructive. For each species, and fo.- each stage of its growth, there exists a certain optimum, mini- mum and maximum of insolation with reference to the possibilities of its success. The damaging influence of excessive insolation is prevented by the inner organization of the plant. 8 ruy\Ar-djv>^zAA.~t^A **J sj^O-^-^-^C*^ . SYLVICULTURE. The duration (number of days) of insolation is as important as the intensity of insolation. Within the individual tree the lower branches are killed gradually, being overshadowed by new upper branches. Without light no bud; without bud no leafing branch; without new leaves annually formed no limb can live. Within one and the same species a tree once acquiring superi- ority over its neighbors is apt to retain superiority until death. Since it enjoys more light, it assimilates better. Within rival species, owing to greater sensitiveness of chloro- phyll and thanks to more favorable inclination, form and position of leaves, some species exceed others in assimilation and vitality under tne same influx of light. Shade bearing are such leaves as assimi- late sufficiently (so as to bear buds at the axils) in spite of the fact that only little diffused light chances to strike them. Many dicotyledonous trees form a so-called "leaf mosaic," the lower tiers of leaves fitting themselves into the interstices of light left in the upper tiers. Many leaves alter their inclination toward the sun according to the hourly degree of insolation (photo-metric movement). The epidermis of light demanding and sun-exposed leaves is heavy, leathery. The leaves of shade bearers are thin and wither quickly when picked. Light demanding leaves are often sinn- ing, reflecting and whitish, so especially in tropical countries, and the leaf stomata are deeply sunk into the surface. On the same tree leaves growing in the shade are darker than those growing in the light: old leaves darker than young ones. The formation of spines and thorns indicates a ran plant; hair or down are usually found in light demanders more than in shade plants. III. Heat. For each plant and for each atep of its development can be determined a minimum, optimum and maximum of heat required or allowed. Without heat growth is impossible, since cell division is impossible. The formation of chlorophyll, breathing, assimilation, germination, flowering, fruiting and transpiration depend on heat. The distribution of the genera i- governed, pre-eminently, by heat. For some polar plants, life is possible below 32 degrees Faht. As a rule, however, plant activity begins to be observable at 50 degrees Faht. The maximum of heat compatible with plant life generally lie be- low 115 degrees Faht. Excess of temperature over maximum is more disastrous than deficiency of heat below minimum. Plants, however, temporarily fortify themselves against periodical extremes: s Y L V ICUL T U R E. 1. By non-freezing cell contents. 2. By reduced water contents (seed, rosin). 3. By lignification. 4. By dropping leaves during winter or during period of exces- sive drought. 5. By adequate covers (bark, hair's, hud scales, layers rich in air cells, reddish color, wrappings formed by last year's leaves). These covers, at least, allow the plant to escape rapid changes of temperature. Short periods of vegetation and long periods of rest result from deficient heat. Hence no annual plants in polar regions. Short shoots, evergreen leaves, preparation of flowers in year preceding fruit are characteristic of a polar flora, In tropical countries there are no periods of rest unless determined by periods of drought. IV. Moisture of air and precipitations. Water is at hand a. to increase the toughness of wood (imbibition water of cell walls) : b. to allow of solution of cell contents (cell sap) ; c. to serve as plant food, through assimilation; d. to allow of osmotic movement of sap; e. to assist in photometric movement of leaves (through swell- ing ana irritation) ; f. to reduce rapidity of change of temperature by evaporation. Only some lichens survive a process of absolute drying. Lack of moisture causes crippled growth, and frequently subterranean forests (mesquit). "^sAiter Henry Mayr, the minimum of moisture compatible with tre^e growth is two inches of rainfall and fifty per cent, of relative humidity during period of vegetation. Phanerogamous plants are unable to absorb water directly through the epidermis, obtaining it instead through the spongiolae of the roots and, in gaseous form, through the stomata of the leaves. Mosses and lichens, however, absorb water directly through the epi- dermis. The hygroscopic power of a dead cover of mosses on the ground equals that of a live cover. Wet climate creates evergreen woods (Pacific coast and Ant- arctic forests of South America). A dry climate gives rise to annual species, to a distinct period of rest, to rapid flowering and fruiting. Precipitations equally distributed over the twelve months of an entire year and precipitations falling during a few weeks result in 10 S Y L V I C U LTUB E. entirely different floras. Rain in summer stimulates growth much more than rain in winter. De Candolle divides our globe according to moisture and heat and on the basis of floral differences resulting therefrom., into rive regions in the fourth of which we are living. 1. Hydromegathermal region (water great heat). Mean annual temperature over 68 degrees Faht. (Amazon river region, wet tropi- cal zone). 2. Xerophilous (Dry loving) region. The region and binders of arid deserts, prairies, sunny slopes, etc., exhibiting a flora very modest in moisture requirements. ;i. Mesothenna] (medium beat) region, baring mean tempera- ture of 59 to 6S degrees Faht. (northern Florida, etc). 4. Microthermal i little heat i region of '■'•■2 to 59 degrees Faht. o. Hecistotherma] (leaat beat) region of Less than 32 degrees Faht. The most important representative of a Xerophilous charactei is the Yellow Pine. The hecistotherma] zone shows Spruces, Birches, Obttonwoods. V. Wind. Wind brings moisture and drought, heat and cold; it covers or uncovers vegetation with sand or Bnow drifts, tumbling, at prior geographical eras, whole mountains int < > the valleys (Loess formation). Severe wind dwarfs tree growth and forces branches to grow in leeward direction only. The influence <>f a slight ob- struction, preventing the access of wind at high latitudes, is splen- didly illustrated by the growth of Spruce and Fir on Pisgah Ridge. On high mountains tree growth is often entirely determined by wind (slope of Little Ball). Species resisting wind besl in Pisgah Fores! are Red Oak, Chestnut. Locust. Pieea alba and dwarf pines like l'inu- pungens and inontana show great strength in resisting wind. In the west Tsuga mertcn- siana. l'inu- albieaulis. l'inu- monticola, further western Juniper rank firsi among the tree- braving severe -tonus. Wind is essential for the breathing and for the perspiration of leaves and bark; for driving pollen or stigma to fertilize the seed: tor trimming the branches, thus forming clear boles; for dis- tributing seed. The investigations conducted by Fliche (French Forester) have, however, yielded the astonishing result that winged seeds travel much slower than heavy seeds covetted by birds. Fliche gives the following number of years as required by trees traveling from Nancy to Paris, a distance of 160 miles: 11 SYLVICULTURE. Beech 18640 years. Chestnut 12920 years. Pine 48680 years. Sarvis 1330 to 2000 years. VI. Structure of soil. Soil consists of natural rock; or of rock disintegrated under the influence of water, frost, heat, oxygen, carbonic acid, lichens, bacteria ; or of washings deposited by water, wind or glaciers. The components of soil are: a. Soil skeleton, large grains, principally quartz and stones. b. Soil flesh, minute semi-soluble particles, — the mud of the rivers. c. Soil fat, the humose particles giving the soil a dark color. d. Soil blood, the air and water, filling the pores of the soil. The size of the pores determines the capillary capacity. According to the resistance which soil offers to spade or plow, we distinguish the following classes: Light soil; Loose soil; Binding soil; Heavy soil; Stiff soil. VII. Air in the soil. Roots require oxygen for breathing. Like fish, they die from lack as well as from superabundance of oxygen. Subterranean air is rich in carbonic acid exhaled by roots, fungi, bacteria, animals. Swamp soil contains little air. Hence such species only find a living in swamps which have large inner air ducts (Cypress knees, Nyssa root, bamboo, cane breaks, sour grasses). Prairial soil is naturally so compact that it contains little oxygen. VIII. Water in the soil. It occurs : a. Chemically bound to minerals and salts. b. Absorbed by the hygroscopicity of soil. c. Raised by the capillary power of soil. d. As ground water — lakes, swamps, brooks being merely areas of open ground water. The size of the pores and the presence of humus govern the intensity and rapidity of water obtention and retention. Sand, for instance, allows water to enter its large pores quickly, but gives it up rapidly as well. Wet, moist, fresh, dry and arid soil are distinguished. 12 8 X I. VICULTURE. The degree of wetness of soil i- of the utmost importance for tree growth. At its southern limit, a species grows only in swamps or along watercourses. The water in the soil dissolves the mineral salts so as to form sap and seems to be of great intluence on the bacterial life in the soil. IX. Heat in the soil. It is derived from the earths own temperature, from chemical processes in -oil (notably fermentation) and from sun rays. In tin' latter case, t lie angle of insolation, the duration of insolation, the heal capacity of Boil, the color of soil, the porosity of -oil and its able cover Berve as influencing factors. A cold rool lias in. pumping power. Fine root fibres die from temperatures which line branches easily withstand. The actual influence of the heat in the >■ >il on tie.' growth is practically un- known, llie opening of tin- buds in spring and tin- fall of leaves in autumn air probably connected with the thermic changes occur- ring in the various strata of the soil, \. Depth of soil. I^H^rooted species easily obtain the superiority ,.ver tap- rooteil -peri,-- 1,11 -hallow -oil. T roots, however, are not apt to penetrate t,, a depth greater than -i\ feet. Shallow -oil in- creases danger from tire, drought, Btorm. A tap rooted species, planted on -hallow soil, produces only a stunted form. Shallow soil is well adapted to the coppice Bystem, in case of broad leaved tap rooted Bpecies. XI. Food in the soil. A tree, like a crystal, i- composed of various chemical element-. The available amount of that necessary elemenl which happen- t,, occur in the relatively -malle-t degree determines in both crystal and plant, the rate of growth actually taking place (Liebig's law). The superabundance of one component, even of a necessary com- ponent, prevents, on the other hand, the local existence of many species. The ten necessary element- found within a plan! in solid, liquid or gaseous condition are O. 11. t . I'. IV. K. Mg, (a. \. S. "Roots search food as if they had eyes."*— a rule easily proven in any nursery. Xlf. Species of soil. a. Rock. Most important rock formations are: (Jranite, gneiss, limestone, sandstone, slate and trap. 13 8YLVICU LT I I: I.. Vertical stratification facilitates decomposition and tree growth. The various species of rock differ in hardness, porosity, heat con- duction, and above all in soluble mineral contents. I). Quartz sand. Quartz sand is unfertile when pure, since silicic acid fails to be digested by the roots and fails to react with the acid- usually found in the soil. Quartz sand is loose, has small hygroscopicity, small capillarity and small heat-retaining capacity. It is hot during the day and cold at night. c. Lime. Lime when pure is a poor soil, although not quite a- dry and hot as sand. Lime, however, mixed with loam and clay (so-called marl) forms an extremely productive soil. d. (lay. Clay has great absorbing and hygroscopic power. It is wet and cold. Main components are aluminum-silicates. e. Loam. Loam is a mixture of sand and clay — the usual soil in agriculture and forestry. It is usually colored by iron (red loam at Biltmore). "We speak of a sandy loam or of a loamy sand according to the prevalence of one or the other component. Loam soil exhibits a happy medium of qualities favorable to tree growth. f. Humus. Humus results from the decomposition of^^retable and animal matter under co-operation of bacteria, fungi, r^^n-orms (Darwin i. larvae. Humus forms a solvent of mineral plant food. A bad conductor of heat and cold, it prevents rapid changes of temperature in soil, has great hygroscopicity and great water- retaining power and is a preventive to evaporation of soil moisture. Mild forest humus shows a basic reaction, whilst the sour humus of the swamps shows an acid reaction. Unfavorable is the dust humus formed by many Ericaceae. XIII. Physical versus chemical qualities of soil. Agriculture withdraws food only from the top layer of soil. It deprives that top layer of its rarest and mosl valuable com- ponents, by the annual crop of grain excessively rich in nitrates, phosphates and potash. The porosity, and through it the water capacity and the heat capacity of soil, are readily controlled on the held by the plow. It is necessary in agriculture, in the long run, to return to the soil in the shape of fertilizer annually as many pounds of nitrates, phosphates and potash as have been removed in the shape of crops from a given acre of land. "I he productiveness of agriculture depend-, above all. on the chemical qualities of the soil tilled. A crop of trees, on the other hand, takes from the soil very little, since the tree consists mainly of ( '. fi. II. or since wood i- nothing bul air solidified by sunshine. The phosphates, nitrate- and potash absorbed by the tree are 14 SYLVICULTURE. returned to the soil by the fall of branches, leaves, seeds, flowers, etc. The traces of chemical fertility locally removed in the shape of logs are, in addition, counterbalanced by the decomposing influ- ence on the rock exercised by roots and root-bacteria. Hence it is not likely that a rotation of crops, as is required in fields, has any advantages m the case of forestry. In primeval woods, we know that Mature allows a species to succeed itself. The physical qualities of the soil preeminently influence the tree species and the rate of its growth. The chemical qualities of the soil play the most potent role in the case of agricultural species. Soil fit for agriculture is not necessarily good forest soil (prairies). Soil fit for forestry (strong north slopes) is often utterly unfit for farming. XIV. Soil covers. Soil covers are either dead or living. Dead soil covers are snow, debris of leaves and twigs. Living soil covers consist of mosses,^ grasses, etc. ~-^J|^;eeps the -oil warm, prevents rapid changes of tempera- ture.^B^ftt- young plants covered by it from perspiring, prevents liftim^^T plants by frost. The debris on the ground feed million- of animal-; and fungi; 'y they harbor, on the other hand. mice, larvae and other enemies of plant growth. Debris frequently prevent reproduction from self- 9own seed and increase the severity of forest fires. Living as well as .dead soil cover influences evaporation of moisture, porosity of soil and water drainage. XV. Life in the soil (Compare Swiss L. F. F. 1904. May and June ) . The soil lives like a plant or an animal, since it -hows con- tinuous changes of form and of composition. Very little, however, is known of the life and the interdependence of millions <<\ live indi- viduals found in the soil. Certain it seems that tree growth is bound on the presence of certain fungi and bacteria living on the roots (Mycorrhiza). Mosi important are the bacteria capable of digesting the nitrogen of the subterranean air. Leguminous plants (('lover. Black Locust) are beset with root knobs, containing bacteria busily engaged in the assimilation of nitrogen. The hyphae of a fungus called Frankia play a similar role on the root knobs of Alder and Sweet Fern. After F. C. Mueller. Spruce will grow on poor sand lacking nitrogen if Pine is mixed with it. furnishing nitrogen through its mycorrhiza. 15 S Y L VICULTUR E. The maximum number of bacteria is said to be found two feet below the surface of the ground, and none exist below six feet. The number of bacteria per pound of soil varies from one hundred millh n to two hundred and fifty million. Important, too, in plant ecology is the life of the larger animals (worms, insects, centipeds) changing the vegetable matter of the soil into manure proper, mixing mineral soil and vegetable matter, increasing the porosity, drainage and aeration and neutralizing the acids 01 the soil. Shade, protection from wind and sufficient moisture are beneficial to animal life in the soil. Paragraph III. Influence of the sylva on the ecological factors. The influence exerted by the forest on local climate I heat, air, preeipitatii ns, etc.) is dwelt upon in the lectures on forest policy. Whilst the ecological factor- shown in the previous paragraph exhibit the important influence which the soil has on the tree, there exists at the same time, although to a lesser degree, an influence of the tree on the soil. This influence is invariably such as to facili- tate life to the tree itself and to its progeny. The prjjf^^on of humus is the main source of that influence. Governing factors are: A. Leaf canopy overhead. Evergreen as well as deciduous woods annually return to the soil by the leaf fall a large amount of dead matter readily assimilable. Shade bearers furnish a better humus than light demanders. excluding, at the same time, intensive insola- tion, -ii that the decomposition of the leaf carpet and the evaporation of the soil moisture is favorably retarded. A humus formed by Beech, Maple and Chestnut is considered especially good. Beech is justly called abroad the "Mother of the Forest " owing to its soil-improving qualities. The leaf canopy is particularly dense during the thicket and the pole-wood stage. Even light demanders. whilst young, improve the fertility of the soil. At a higher age, when the light demanders place themselves far apart one from another (say less than 100 trees per acre), the humus on the ground is destroyed, being replaced by a dense and impermeable matting of grasses or shrubs. Amongst the conifers, Yellow and White Pine seem to furnish the best humus. Spruce humus is too waxy. B. Rate of disintegration of leaves. This rate depends on insolation, on heat capacity of soil (sand versus clay), on atmospheric humidity. Usually, decomposition of leaf fall takes place within two or three years. The thin leaves of 16 SYLVICULTUR E. ticker than the I - of the oisture "t high altitudes tccumuJation "t large quanl — in the tropica rod. 1 1 iikle «l<>\\ 11 I no more 1 1 Soi i ith the fertility ot 1 a»fc iph IV The North A ra. i ' . u lii.-ii tiee on the w rotinent :lt To degrees latitude in v atitude in I at the ll'i ■ >n tin- 111. . i - 1 ».m w indfl supplie I and the Greal Lai on through ' the latitude inter depend* • the forest on tli<> nexl mountain chain I \ in^r to f Bl h ft. above see level; no foreal in Blue Mountains below i - lowest gap in 1 * 1 1 1 • • Mountains in Rockies below The <M-t 9lo| t" the I Hue Mountains and Rockies Bhows littl no forest, and the lowlands I the mountain chains are deserts and prairies S V L VI CULTURE. Moist sea winds, after passing one chain allow the forest to grow on the next chain only above the altitude of the gaps in the first chain. The following table shows the composition of the forest of the United States and of Canada, under the influence of the climate: Percentage of forest area occupied by: In United States. In Canada. Tropical forest y2% 0% Sub-tropical forest 15 % 0% Forest of the moderately warm zone 75 % 10% Forest of the moderately cold and alpine zone... 0x/2% 90% The United States contain two big and one minor forest region, namely the Atlantic forest region; North Mexican forest region; Pacific forest region. The Atlantic and the Pacific forest join under the influence of the Hudson Bay winds at 52 degrees latitude, in AssiniboTa. There ar? no prairies proper north of this latitude. The tropical forest shows no seasons. Its species are evergreen. In the United States it is found only at the extreme southern point of Florida. The sub-tropical forest is characterized by the evergreen broad- leaved trees, and is the zone of rice and oranges, extending in east- ern North America to 35 degrees, in western North America to 40 degrees, latitude. The moderately warm forest region is the zone of the broad- leaved deciduous trees, of corn, vine and wheat. The moderately cold forest region is that of the evergreen conifers too cold for the production of corn. h\ North Carolina a trip from the coast to the high Balsams It ads the traveler from the northernmost limit of the sub-tropical through the moderately warm forest region into the southernmost limit of the moderately cold forest region which sets in at about 6,000 ft. elevation. A. The Atlantic forest. I. Fastern tropical forest. Mahogany occurs only as a small tree, Palms and other typically tropical orders (Sapotaceae, Ebon- aceae, Fuphorbiaceae. Verbenaceae) compose the forest. It must be remembered thai Southern Florida exhibits only the extreme northern occurrence of the tropical forest. 18 SYLVICLJ LTURE. II. Eastern sub-tropical forest. It shows evergreen Oaks. Mag- nolias. Persea, etc.. besides the Pines, the snil being too poor for the formation of a large wintergreen broad-leafed forest. The winter temperature averages 53 degrees Faht.: precipitations are heavy; relative humidity is 75 degrees. Saba] palmetto is a characteristic weed. Bald Cypress and Cuban Pine are characteristic trees of the region. Anmng the other Pines., the Long Leaf Pine is the most important, associated in the north and west with Pinus clausa, echinata, taeda. serotina. glabra. Liquidambar. Xyssa and Fraxinus piatycarpa occur in swamps at the edge of which southern White Cedar frequently appears. III. Eastern winter bald forest of the moderately warm zone. It is fringed at the south, north and east by a broad belt of Pines, which belt connects this region at the south with the sub-tropical forest, at the north with the Fir and Spruce forest of the moderately cold zone. It is divided into a northern and a southern half by the 39th degree of latitude. Each half shows an Atlantic, a central and a prairial sub-region. a. South Central Sub-region. Traversed by the Mississippi, the sub-region i- characterized by high temperatures, large precipita- tions and tine s..il. which allow of the best development of broad- leaved woods found in the world. Twenty-three Oak species, eight Hickory species, two Walnuts. Buckeyes, Chestnut, Gums, Cotton- w Is. fellow Poplar, Sycamore, Beech, Maple, Elm. Red Cedar, etc. stand in a dense undergrowth formed by Dogwood, Kalmia. Rho- dodendron, Hazel. Cherries, Hawthorn, Buckthorn, Witch Hazel, etc. In this sub-region the heavy seeded broad-leaved trees obtain the maximum of size, quality and number of species at altitudes running up to .{.OIMI ft. Higher up the number of species diminishes. At ."..(loo ft. only Red Oak, Chestnut. Beech, Buckeye, Sugar Maple (resembling north central subdivision) are found, and at 6,000 ft. the Spruces and Firs (southernmost sentinels of moderately cold zone! set in. b. South Atlantic Sub-region. It comprises the Eastern foot- hills of the Alleghanies (Piedmont Plateau) and part of the Coastal Plain. Temperature 3% degrees Faht. less, soil poorer, precipita- tions less abundant than in the South Central sub-region, hence much Pine (taeda. mitis, rigida, virginiana). Only ten Oak species; White Cedar swamps; broad-leaved flora otherwise as in South Central, but of rather inferior development. c. South Prairial Sub-region. Extending from the 02nd to the 102nd degree of longitude, the forest appears poorer than the annual 19 S \ i. \ i < i i. T i 1; k. temperature and the annual rainfall seem to indicate; a discrepancy between cause and effect, possibly due to forest fires. Wesl of the 95th degree of longitude. Oak, Ash and Walnut occur along rivers, especially on Eastern banks. Oak also appeal's scattered through the depressions. (1. North Central Sub-region. Precipitations very abundant from South as well as North. Average winter temperature 30 de- grees Faht. Quick change of temperature. The light-seeded, broad- leaved species reach maximum in this section, also White Pine and Hemlock, Six Maples, live Birches, Elms and Lindens, further Ash, Butternut. Red and White Oak compose the forest. e. North Atlantic Sub-region. Plenty of moisture, the moun- tains being close to the sea-shore, but not so much -as in Lake states. Average winter temperature 34 degrees Faht. at seashore. Finns rigida ami mitis, Beech, Birch, Chestnut. Maples, often replaced by Poplar and Willow. Spruce sets in at altitude exceeding 1.000 ft., accompanied by Hemlock, White Cedar, Red Cedar. White Tine and Tamarack. f. North Prairial Sub-region. Dry summers, blizzard y winters and more sandy soil. No Hemlock. Red Pine and Jack Pine intrud- ing from North. Scrub Oak openings. On best soil still good develop- ment of Linden, Maple. Elm and Birch. White Pine of | rer quality than in sub-region " d." IV. Eastern Evergreen Forest of the moderately cold zone. The majority of this zone lies in Canada, in northern Lake state- Maine. It occurs in North Carolina at 0.000 ft. elevation: in the Adirondacks at 2.000 feet: in Maine at sea level. The region occupies a big belt stretched across the continent, so that western and eastern flora joins hands in it. A typical tree ,,t this region, the White Spruce, often forms large pure forests. Other species of the zone are Red Spruce. Black Spruce, Balsam fir. Cotton- woods. Canoe Birch. Hemlock. White Cedar and Tamarack, the lattei here obtaining its optimum. B. The North Mexican forest. The North Mexican flora intrudes, coming from Mexico, Arizona and New Mexico. It is differed from the Pacific flora, unimportan1 commercially, interesting only botanically. Forest possible only at altitudes exceeding 5,500 feet. Forest proper— dense forest— only at 8,000 feet, I. North Mexican sub-tropical forest. Characterized by Cactus, ¥ucca, Agave and Mesquite (Prosopis). Evergreen Oaks in moist valleys. Madrona (Arbutus), a beautiful 20 S Y L V I C U L T U R E. tree, on sunny slopes often mixed with Manzanita (Acrostaphylo-3 pungens). II. North Mexican forest of the moderately warm zone. This zone, very narrow, should contain winter-bald broad-leaved species. The dryness of the soil and of the air, however, allows of their occurrence only on moist ground along rivers. Western Walnut, Mexican Ash, Poplars and Willows. The Pines are the leading" species of the zone, forming huge forests at altitudes exceeding 6,000. feet elevation. Some of these Pines arc northern sentinels from Mexico, others outposts from the State-. Mosl important is Pinus Chihuahuana, in Mexico largely used for timber, up to SO feet high, three feet in diameter, three needle-. Pinus Arizonica, a five-needled Pine, occurs at 6,000 feet elevation. Pinus reflexa, locally known as White Pine, occupies moist dells at 8,000 feet elevation. Nut pines at lesser elevations as low brush, notably Pinus edulis, monophylla, osteosperma. C. The Pacific forest. Typical difference from Atlantic foresl lies in the relative lack of broad-leaved woods — not in species, bul in area. Tropica] forest is absent, possibly due to lack of moisture at low elevations in Southern California. I. Pacific sub-tropical forest. Occupying Southern California, 'this /one is devoid of dense forests, the northern edge excepted. Evergreen Oaks, or rather Winter Green Oaks (Quercus densinora is leafless during dry sum- mer) dot the ground in park-like groves. California Laurel (Um- bellularia californica) is a characteristic tree of this region, growing up to 100 feet high. Impenetrable bush thickets cover hoi aspects, formed by Leguminosae, Labiatae, Compositae, Rosaceae, etc. The rare and beautiful Montery Cypress along the seashore. Sequoia Bempervirens is the biggesl tree of the zone, found onlj at its edge in the Coast Range. Pinus insignia known as Montery Pine is valu- able on sand dunes. Pinus tuberculata (attenuata) occurs most frequently in e'ven- aged woods. Pinus sabiniana, \ul or DiggeT Pine, valuable for (he Indians, of Olive-like appearance, is mixed in the Oak parks and in the Chaparal thickets. Another Nut Pine is Pinus parryann, grow- ing 30 feet high. Pseudotsuga macrocarpa on St. Bernardino range. Eucalyptus and Accacia were successfully introduced from Austra- lia, Oranges and Figs from the Orient. II. Pacific forest of the moderately warm zone. SYLVICULTURE. This zone covers the major part of the forests of Oregon and Washington and Nbrthrn California. It is characterized by very even annual temperature and high precipitations. The winter bald Oaks are represented in Oregon by Quercus garryana (White Oak). in California by Quercus Kellogii (Black Oak). Fraxinus Oregona, Acer macrophyllum, Populus trichocarpa (Black Cottonwood, the biggest Cottonwood of the world) occupy the bottom land along the rivers; further Sorbus. Amelanchier, Crataegus. Primus. Salix. Aes- culus, Alnus. Acer, Platanus, Negundo, Betula. All of these latter species unimportant commercially. In strict contrast with the Atlantic forest of the same zone, the conifers rule in importance, foremost among them the Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) which stands temperature of 15 degrees Faht. easily. Best development on west slope of Coast Range, In the Rockies, it forms only summer shoots and short holes, owing to shorter growing season and lack of atmospheric moisture. In Colorado, Arizona. New Mexico occurs a gray variety. In the Sierras it appears only as a dependent species. Pinus ponderosa (Yellow Pine, Bull Pine). Height and timber quality depend on proximity to Pacific Ocean. Optimum in Sierra Nevada, where trees 300 feet high are frequently found. Very heavy sap-wood. Name ponderosa undeserved. No tree of the United States occupies a larger territory or shows greater adapta- bility. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Port Orford Cedar) occupied only a very small territory close to the Pacific Coast. Does not ascend mountains to over 1.500 feet. Heavy shade bearer, splendid repro- duction. Thuja plicata (Red Cedar of the West) up to 171) feet high. Rare in California. Best development in Oregon and Washington and Northern Idaho, where it occupies only the moister coves. Boles very tapering: shade bearing; thin bark. Libocedrus decurrens i White Cedar, Bastard Cedar) on west slope of the Sierras at medium elevations, where the tree is mixed with .\l>ies concolor, Yellow and Sugar Pine. Regeneration easy, often in places previously occupied by the Pines. Pinus lambertiana (Sugar Pine), a White Pine since it has five needles in a sheath. Specific gravity even less than thai of Eastern White Pine (Pinus strobus). The biggesl Pine of the world. Very large cones. Optimum in Sierras at 5,000 feet elevation: occurs often with Sequoia, Libocedrus. Abies concolor. Yellow Pine. Pinus Jeffreyi. 'the latter, a very close relative to ponderosa and distin- 22 SYLVICULTURE. guished from it by bluish shoots and needles bent towards the shoots, occupies the lower Sugar Pine belt. It prefers moist ground and reaches only one-half the size of ponderosa. Mayr groups the above trees as follows, according to their de- mands on moisture: Demands on soil moisture: 1. Libocedrus decurrens, 2. Pinus jeftreyi. 3. Abies concolor, 4. Pinus lambertiana, 5. Pinus ponderosa. Demands on air moisture: 1. Abies concolor, 2. Pinus lambertiana, 3. Pinus jeftreyi, 4. Libocedrus decurrens, 5. Pinus ponderosa. Abies grandia (White Fir of Northern Pacific Coast). Tin- onlj fir on Vancouver Island. Optimum at coast in Oregon where it grows up to 300 feet high, standing alongside gigantic Cottonwoods; extends eastward across the Northern Rockies, and is the first Pa- cific fir met by the traveller going west on the Northern Pacific. Requires moist soil. Abies concolor (White Fir of Colorado and of the Sierras). Running south to the San Bernardino mountains, where it occupies elevations of up to 10,000 feet. Traversing Nevada, it occurs in Colorado (gardener's variety glauca). It accompanies Sugar Pine and Bigtree. After Muir. always mixed with Abies magnifica, occur- ring at altitudes ranging between 5,000 feet and 8,000 feet. Abies bracteata (Santa Lucia fir of high mountains) occurs in Southern California in moist cool dells. Tsuga heterophylla (Black Hemlock of low elevations). A fine tree, the progeny of which forms a dense undergrowth underneath Douglas fir. Heavy shade bearer, requiring plenty of moisture, occurring in Alaska, Coast Range and Cascades. Picea sitchensis (Tideland Spruce). Along coast on very moist soil in Washington, on dryer soil in Alaska, very shade bearing and branchy. Stinging needles. Up to 200 feet high. Sequoia Washingtoniana (Bigtree). Occurring only in the Sierras in scattered groups at elevations ranging from 4.000 to 7,000 feet. 23 S"5 LVII I l.Ti l; E. Enormous seeding capacity and sprouting capacity. Average di- ameter 20 feet, height 27-". feet, age up to 1,000 years. III. Pacific forest of moderately cold zone. This /"iK' i>. in 1905, economically of uo importance, although it i- tli.- foresl zone proper, owing to the impossibility of agricul- ture within this /nil,., it i- "The Canadian Forest Zone." Jt lies in the Sierras al 8,000 feet, in the Cascades at t. feet, and in Alaska at seashore. The forests ol the Northern Rocky mountains to it preferably. Pinus murrayana (Lodgepole Pine), shade hearing, in close stands, very branchy, very sappy, retaining cones, easily destroyed by lire, closely related to the -hick Pine of the east. Frequent on fill burns, typical t"i Yellowstone Park, going south to Arizona. ' Larix occidentalis (Western Tamarack). Splendid lumber tree, often in pure forests, optimum in Idaho, natural regeneration easy, rapid height growth, little sap wood, timber equal to Long Leaf Pine. Pinus Bexilis (Limber White Pine). More branchy and much shorter than eastern White Pine; forms open forests on south slopes oi Sierras and in Nevada at 7;000 feet elevation: from Montana it extends southward to Colorado. Pinus monticola (Mountain White Pine). In Cascades, British 1 olumbia, Idaho, Montana, in the latter state more on slopes drain- ing westward. Alnes nobilis, amabilis, magnifica, the Red Firs of the west. Magnifica known in California as Larch. The two first named often associated with Abies grandis and more frequenl in Washington and Oregon than in California. Amabilis extends into Alaska. Red Firs are lacking in the Rockies. Needles are dark. Picea engelmanni (White Spruce). At home in middle and southern Rockies, on northern slopes at altitudes averaging 10.000 feet. Picea parryana (Colorado Blue Spruce). Needles very pointed and stinging, of a bluish tint. Occupies moist -round. IV. Pacific forest of the Alpine region. Typical trees are: Pinus albicaulis (Dwarf White Pine). Occurring in the Cascades and the Rockies (Utah). Pinus balfouriana and aristata (Fox-Tail Pine). White l'ine found in California at 8,000 feet to 12,000 feet elevation; twigs thin. retaining needle- for many years. 24 S Y L V I C UL T U K E. Abie-, lasiocarpa (Balsam). At edge of tree growth only a shrub. In Colorado at lower, warmer situations a valuable tree. Occurs in all states of the west. Larix lyallii (Larch of British Columbia). Occurs here and there in Washington. Idaho and Montana, at very high altitudes. Tsuga mertensiana (Hemlock). A storm -battered Hemlock, at high altitudes in Sierras. Cascades. Montana. A branchy tree up to 100 feet high, inaccessible and hence of no value. Paragraph V. General definitions and explanations. A. In Europe, under the term "Wood ' is understood an aggre- gate of trees of such uniform character that it can be subjected to the same manner of treatment. In the American virgin forests, "woods'5 are rare. As a matter of fact the term "woods'-' as well as the term " forests " has no definite meaning in America. A fores- ter should keep in mind, however, that a plantation or a natural regeneration, whatever its age and its condition, must be classed under the heading " forests." A "group" of trees consists of even-aged specimens of the same species and is larger than a bunch, clump, or cluster. Xo recog- nized definitions of the term " group " and " clump " are at hand, un- fortunately, based on the space or the acreage covered by them as unit-. Groups, as understood in the following pages, are distinct aggregates of trees covering -^ to 4 acres. B. Pure forests, pure woods, pure groups or bunches are such as contain one timber species only, 5 per cent, admixture being permissible. Species able to form pure forests are termed gregari- ous or ruling species, sub-divided into distinctly ruling speci.'s. which are usually found in pure stands, and conditionally ruling species, which are occasionally found in pure stands. I. After Drude, the participation of a species as a mess-mate at the forest table is expressed by the following terminology: ,i. Social species, denoting the main character, the striking feature (in numbers and volume) of the forest: the rank and file of the forest; b. Gregarious species, occurring in clumps and groups, island like: c. Copious species, interspersed with others, the degree of fre- quency being interpreted by exponents, f. i.. copious8, copious2, copiou- : d. Sparse species, occurring isolated and in single specimens; l\ Solitary species, very isolated and very rare. s Y LVICU LTTJ RE. II. it illicit be preferable to express the ratio of the participa- tion in per cent. Social, Forming mi'; and over of growing -tuck. Gregarious, forming 40% and over of "rowing stuck. Copious, forming 2\)l/( and over of growing stock. Sparse, forming \% and over of growing stock. Solitary, forming less than 1% of growing Btock. Intermediate stages mighl De indicated by a union of the given designations, f. i., " social-gregarious.' III. The configuration of the ground and the rapidity of its e.iange vitally influence the possibilities of a species as a coinp nt of the forest. IV. Species which arc not, or which are locally not, "riding" species are called " dependent " species. A species mighl he ruling in North Carolina, while it i> depend- ent in South Carolina. The distribution of the species i- limited by its demands on 80il and climate. Far away from the center of distribution a species is likely to be dependent. V. The ruling species in the south are: Long Leaf Pine, Bald Cypress, Loblolly Pine. Short Leaf Pine. Sweet Gum, Post Oak, (Jottonwoods, Chestnut. The ruling species in the west are: Lodgepole Pine, Finns ponde- rosa, Douglas Fir. White Fir (Abies grandis), Engelmann's Spruce, Western White Pine, Port Orford Cedar. Redwood. Sitka. Spruce. VI. Obviously the meek species are those that conquer the globe. With the inroads of civilization on the fertility of the soil, and especiallv on the water capacity of the soil, these meek species obtein additional chances to supersede the exacting species. C. Weapons of the species in the struggle for existence are: I. Shade-bearing qualities. II. Modesty as regards the fertility of soil, the moisture and the heat during the period of vegetation. III. Power of resistance to storm, sleet, -now. late and early frosts, droughts, tire. etc. IV. Immunity from forest ^insects and forest fungi. V. Longevity. <>ak lives longer than Beech; Sequoia longest of all. VI. Reproductive power, especially reproductive power from stumps, frequency and richness of 3eed years. VIL Portability and sensitiveness of - i~: number of enemies of a 1-: germinating percentage of Beeds. VTIL Rapidity of height growth in early youth. SYLVICULTURE. D. Density of stand. Every ruling species shows a particular density of cover and a particular ramification during every stage of its life, when grown in pure forests. I. Density of leaf cover overhead. a. The form of the crown of the individual depends on side- shade, topshade, neighborly friction and quality of soil. b. Natural regeneration causes a greater density of cover than artificial regeneration, certainly during the thicket and pole stage. Other influencing factors are: quality of the soil, age of the forest, inroads by snow break, wind fall, fire, deer, fungi, insects. c. A dense canopy overhead produces clear boled timber and allows of a heavy layer of humus on the ground. The method of regeneration distinctly influences the value of the timber to oe formed. II. Number of trees per acre. Lender normal conditions an acre of pure forest contains the more specimens of equal height or diameter, the better the quality of the soil and the better the climate: and the more specimens of the same age. the poorer these factors are. For example — Yellow Pine Forests: Number of trees per acre. Soil. Boles 75' long. Diameter 12". Age (30 yrs. I quality. . . 320 24u 380 II quality. .. 24o 215 460 HI quality. .. 190 190 540 During the pole stage and tree stage -hade bearers exhibit per acre ot ground about 50% more trees than light demanders. The following curve illustrates the interdependence between age and number of trees per acre: 10,000 \ 5,000 '. Number 2,500 1.000 of 900 800 trees 700 600 per 500 400 acre 300 ' . 200 100 ""•-•... o 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 30 90 100 120 130 140 150 160 170 180 Number cf years old. S Y LVIC l I. IT j; E. III. Growing space of a tree. In their early youth all species stand or even desire a dense cover overhead. W'lu'ii the food supply Btored in the seed shell is consumedj however, the seedling requires light to digest its food. With increasing age; the tree boles getting longer, the crowns rub and beat one another intensely, swaying pendulum fashion in the wind. As a consequence each crown is surrounded with an air space, the relative width of which depends largely on the Length and the flexibility of the bole. It might lie stated that the growing space of a tree is a function of the square of the gradually lengthening bole. Trees differ in the ease with which waning neighbors lose their buds and shoots. Oak, for example, loses its May shoots easily, whilst Beecn, struggling with Oak, loses a few leaves only along its flexile swaying twigs. In heavy storms Yellow Pine often loses whole branches. "White Pine, on the other hand, does not easily lose its shoots. The top shoots of the taller individuals are immune from harm. Thus a tree, once in the lead of its competitors, has a good chance to retain the lead over them. IV. Grades of density of cover are: Pressed cover. Close cover, Light cover and Open cover. No strict definition of these terms can be given. Obviously the number of stems under pressed conditions is very large. Indications of a normal cover are: a. Relation between length of crown and length of bole. b. Normal diameter growth and height growth. c. Proper participation of the various diameter classes in the volume of wood at hand. The normal participation in a pure, even- aged wood i- for the 1st. Diameter class — 40% of total volume. •2nd. Diameter class — 24% of total volume. 3rd. Diameter class— 17% of total volume. 4th. Diameter class— 12% of total volume. 5th. Diameter elass — 7% of total volume. If cover overhead is too dense, the firsl class -how- over 40%> of volume and vice \ ersa. V. In nature, the same causes necessarily have the -am.' result. The cause- of timber production are -oil Mini atmospheric food "fall- ing " oiiio the -oil in the shape of sunshine, moisture and air. Eence, whatever the species are. it seems as if the acre of ground, fully stocked, nm-t produce on the annual average the same weight of timber nol 'he same volume of timber. Thus, ceteris paribus, 28 SYLVICULTURE. species uf light specific gravity are the best volume producers. Since. however, shade-bearing species are better digestors of atmospheric and terrestrial food, the largest growth per acre per annum is obtained from shade bearers of light weight (Hemlock, Spruce, Fir, White Pine). In the virgin forest the annual production of wood fibre is exactly offset by the annual death and decay of wood fibre. The virgin forest is a forest seemingly in economic stagnation. VI. The sectional area of a tree usually measured chest high (4y2 feet above ground), inclusive of bark, is the area of the circle corresponding with the diameter measured chest high. The sectional area of an acre of forest is tin' sum total of the sectional areas of the trees standing thereon. It rarely exceeds one- half per cent, of the acreage of the ground, or 218 square feet per acre. E. Rotation. Under rotation is understood the number of years which a seed- ling requires to reach maturity. For a second growth in America, rotations will vary in length from 60 years to 160 year-, according to the species and local conditions. During a rotation a wood lot may pass through t lie cleaning stages, thinning stages, the stage of preparatory cutting, the seed-cutting stage and the stage of final removal. JF. Size classes and age classes. I. Pinchot adopts the following -even age classes or size classes of trees in his "Primer:" a. Seedlings, up to 3 feet high. b. Small saplings, from ."> to 10 feet high. C. Large saplings, 10 feet high to I inches diameter. d. Small poles, from 4 inches to s inches diameter. e. Large poles, from 8 inches to 12 inches diameter. f. Standards, from 12 inches to 24 inches diameter. g. Veterans, over 24 inches diameter. II. During the sapling stage, the specimens form a thicket; during the pole stage, they form a polewood; and during t he standard and veteran stage, a tree forest. III. During the thinning stage (pole stages) of trees in an even- aged wood, the following classes of mess-mates might be distin- guished: a. After Schlich, "Dominant," "Dominated."' ••Suppressed, yet alive." and " Dead." b. After Pinchot. "Dominant," "Retarded." and "Overtopped." s v lvicu i/rr ii k. e. The usual classification, adopted by German foresters after Kraflt is: 1. Predominating trees, having crown strikingly well developed. 2. Dominating trees, with well-developed crowns, forming the main cover overhead. 3. Condominating trees, with crowns of a fairly normal form, but of somewhat poor vigor, carrying, however, their crowns within the level of the main canopy. 4. Dominated trees with crowns more or less crippled or pressed from the sides, subdivided into two sub-classes, viz.: a. Most of crown free from cover overhead. b. Most of crown underneath cover overhead. 5. Trees absolutely suppressed, standing entirely under the cover of others. G. Even-aged woods: Woods, the components of which differ in age by less than "2.") years, are called "even-aged woods." In America, even-aged woods and hence the advisability of thin- ning is mighty rare. The struggle for existence between even-aged comrades can readily be alleviated by the forester's interference. In America, even-aged woods are formed, for instance: T. By Long Leaf and by Cuban Line. II. By Jack Pine and Lodgepole Pine. III. By Bald Cypress. IV. By Douglas Fir. A'. By Finns echinata, taeda. strobns. ponderosa. virginiana on abandoned fields. H. Distribution of species. The horizontal distribution of species depends on the latitude and the proximity of the ocean, or better <m sea winds, and pro- ceeds parallel with the vertical distribution. In the neighborhood of Biltmore. the following altitudes may be given: Spruce and Fir — 5,500 ft. Beech— 2.000 to 6,000 ft. Hemlock— 2.000 to 3.800 ft. Chestnut— 2,000 to 5,000 ft, Chestnut Oak— 2.000 to 4.000 ft. Pignut Hickory— 3.000 ft. Bitternut Hickory— 3.800 ft. Black Cherry— 3,500 to 5.000 ft. Pinus virginiana— 2,000 to 2.500 ft. Pinus strobus— 2.000 to 3.500 ft. 30 s Y LVICULTUKE. Yellow Poplar— 2,000 to 4.000 ft. Buckeye— 3.000 to 0,000 ft. Red Oak— 2,000 to 5,500 ft. White Oak— 2,000 to 5,000 ft. Spanish Oak— 2,000 to 3,800 ft. Post Oak— 2.000 to 3,000 ft. Black Oak— 2,000 to 3,600 ft. Echmata— 2.000 to 2.600 ft. Rigida— 2,000 to 3.500 ft. Pungens— 4,500 ft. Locust— 2,000 to 5,500 ft. Black Gum— 2,000 to 4,000 ft. Every species thrives best in certain centers, which are few in the case of the exacting and numerous in the case of modest species like yellow Pine, both east and west. Aside from vertical and horizontal elevation, the influence on distribution exercised by storm, snow and sleet is very marked. Paragraph VI. Light demanders and shade hearers. A. A plant is termed the more shade bearing or tolerant of shade, the less light it retpiires for the functions of assimilation, breathing, perspiration, flowering and fruiting. Only parasites live without light, and hence without chlorophyl. B. The following characteristics, in their aggregate and not singly, may lead the observer to classify a tree as a shade bearer: I. Dense leaf canopy. II. Leaves thin. dark. tlat. more numerous, not glossy, not downy, not bunched at the ends of the branches, with blades spread horizontally, withering quickly after separation from the branch. III. Thin bark. IV. Thick sapwood. V. Branches persistent, spread flat or pointing downward, com- paratively thin and interlacing. Crowns long. VI. Little live soil cover, and a heavy layer of dead humus underneath leaf canopy. VII. Dense stand of trees. C. Factors influencing the relative demand for light within one and the same species are: I. Latitude and hence intensity of insolation. II. Exposure. III. Fertility of soil, and hence digestive power. IV. Age of plants. 31 S^ LVII V LT I i; E. V. Distance between the crown levels of the shaded and "i the shading trees. instances for 1 and III. White Pine i-. in the south, almosl shade bearing; in the north it is almosl lighl demanding. Yellow Poplar on fertile soil stands heavy shading overhead. I). Woody species in their relative order of resistance against heavy shading might he arranged as follows: I. Relative order tor the southern Appalachians: Witch Hazel. Dogwood. Fir. Hemlock. Hard Maple. Chinquapin. Black Gum. Spruce. Soft Maple. White Pine. Pinus virginiaha. Linden. Chestnut. Pved Oak. White Oak. Chestnut Oak. Ash. Spanish Oak. Black Oak. Finger Oak. Post Oak. Pinus r:gida. Black Locust. Poplar. Hickory. Pinus echinata. Sassafras. Unfortunately, at Biltmore. shade hearers are usually interfering with the valuahle species. EC. Pinchot pivos the following schedule for the Adirondack-: Hard Maple. Beech. Hemlock. SYLVICULTURE. Spruce. Balsam. Soft Maple. Birch. White Pine (intermediate). Black Cherry. Black and White Ash. Bird Cherry. Cottonwood. Tamarack. The trees above White Pine Pinchot calls " tolerant " and those below White Pine " intolerant of shade." III. The leading species of the United States, classed according to light or shade-demanding qualities are: a. Eastern Conifer-: Long Leaf Pine — distinctly intolerant of shade. Echinata — light demander. Taeda — intermediate. Virginiana— intermediate. Rigida — not so much as virginiana. Bald Cypress — light demander. Chamaecyparis spheroidea — shade bearer. Spruc< — fair shade bearer. Balsam — intense shade hearer. Hemlock — intense shade leaver. Tamarack — light demander. Arbor vitai' -hade hearer. White Pine — intermediate. • lack Pine — light demanding toward- intermediate. Norway Pine — light demander. 1>. Eastern hardwoods: Beech — shade bearer. Hard Maple — shade bearer. Silver Maple- shade hearer. Red Maple— shade hearer. Black Gum — -hade bearer. Sourwood — light demander. Locust — light demander. Yellow Poplar — light demander. Chestnut — intermediate. Oaks — light demanders (White and Red Oak stand lots of shade when young). 33 SYLVICULTURE. Elm — shade bearer. Birch — light demander or intermediate. Black walnut — intermediate. Linden — shade bearer. Umbrella tree— less light demanding than Yellow Poplar. Cucumber— less light demanding than Yellow Poplar. Sycamore— medium shade bearer. Willows and Cottonwoods — light demanders. Liquidambar — light demander. Hickories — light demanders. c. Western Conifers: Douglas Fir — intermediate. Ponderosa — light demander. Nut Pines — intense light demanders. Lodgepole Pine — intermediate. Sugar Pine — intense light demander. Lawson Cypress — intense shade bearer. Tide-land Spruce — shade bearer. Redwood — shade bearer. Western Hemlock — intense shade bearer. Western Firs — intense shade bearers. Larch — intense light demander. Engelmann's Spruce — shade bearer. Colorado Blue Spruce — shade bearer. Paragraph VII. Pure versus mixed woods. A. Conditions inviting pure woods and mixed woods. Conifers are more apt to grow in pure forests, owing to their greater modesty. Abroad, up to a very recent time, the desire of the forester was to raise mixed woods, but quite recently the " Danish propaganda " has turned the minds of some foresters back to pure woods. Severe climatic conditions and poor soil conditions invariably give one species the preponderance, for example: Bald Cypress rules in the swamps of the South, Tamarack in those of the North; Nut Pines prevail in the semi-arid regions of the Southwest; Long Leaf Pine on poor sand in the South: Cuban Pine in half swamps of the South: Red Spruce on the "Black Slopes" of the Adirondack's; White Spruce in Northern Canada; Lodgepole Pines on old burnsj Jack Pine on poor sand in the Lake States. Pure forests are sometimes in the interest of the owner, for example: Pure Spruce near paper mills: Hickory near carriage works; Tan Bark Oak near tanneries. 34 . SYLVICULTURE. A high rotation often leads to a pure forest, a short-lived admixture being gradually pressed out. Abroad the forester is required to maintain the fertility and productiveness of the soil. Since light-demanding species allow the soil to be baked by the sun during the pole and tree stage of the forest when grown purely, admixture of shade bearers under such conditions is advisable, obtained, for instance, by underplanting Yellow Pine with Beech, when Pine is 50 years old. B. Kinds of mixture. A mixture may be temporary or permanent; a mixture may be even aged or uneven aged; the species may or may not differ in height growth; the mixture may be composed of single indi- viduals; of strips, rows, bunches, groups; or it may show an irregular character. In the course of time the original character of the mixture might be changed entirely by the forester or by nature. C. Advantages of mixtures. Mixed forests take advantage of differences of soil qualities; the moisture-demanding species gradually claiming the dells and more modest kinds obtaining preponderance on the dry plateaus or spur-. A mixture may form a preventive against late frost. A mixture is better protected against damages by fire, insects, fungi, storms, snow, etc. A mixture produces a better quality of humus (Pine and Oak humus is better than pure Oak humus or pure Pine humus). A mixture produces a larger quantity of limber for tin- above reasons in addition to the fact that a mixture allow- it- com- ponents to more fully utilize the productive factors of the air as well as those of the soil through a. Difference of crown formation, crown level-, crown density. b. Difference in root system (tap and flat-rooters mixed). c. Difference in mineral and light requirements. A mixture also tends to produce cleaner timber — certainly so for the benefit of light demanders when placed in mixture with shade bearers. For all these reasons a mixed forest may be said to produce a larger and safer revenue than a pure forest. Valuable species might be raised beyond the limits of their habitat in mixed forests. D. Objections to mixed forest. 35 SYLVICULTURE. The administrative and the sylviculture,] management of mixed woods is more difficult and hence more expensive than that of pine woods. In America logging expenses arc much increased where only one species can be utilized in mixed forests. Logging for Spruce on "Black Spruce Slopes" in the Adirondacks is relatively cheaper per thousand feet hoard measure than logging for spruce where Spruce forms only one-third of the growing stock. 'I his objection does not hold good, of course, where all species are marketable at the same time. E. Rules governing the composition of a mixture and rule- foi treating mixed forests (holding good for artificial and semi-arti- ficial forests) : I. Species selected for a mixture must improve one another. II. Each species should occupy that section of ground on which it thrives hot. III. The mixture should at least maintain the productiveness of the soil. IV. A light- demanding species mixed with a shade hearer must either be given an advance in age or else must naturalh possess an advantage in rapidity of height growth; otherwise it soon disappears. This relative height growth is not a fixed quantity: it usually differs according to the soil and to the climate. V. The denser the forest cover is, the earlier and the more intense must he the help given to the species likely to he suppressed (Sassafras and Locust in mixture with Chestnut). After Henry Mayr; species which are botanically different from the most natural mixture (Oak and Line at Biltmore; Birch and Spruce in Balsams: White Pine, Linden and Elm in Michigan). The exceptions to this rule are many (Norway and .lack Pine in .Michi- gan; Red Firs and White Firs in the Pacific Coast States). Paragraph VIII. Dr. Henry Mayr's (Munich) fundamental prin- ciples of Sylviculture. A. Forest is possible only where the mean temperature of the four months of most active growth averages 50 degrees Laid, or over. B. A mean summer temperature (May to August) of .">:: to ."iff degrees Faht. produces the Fir and Spruce /one of Europe, Asia and America. A mean summer temperature of .">'.) to ill degrees is productive of Beech, also of White Oak. Maple, Hemlock ami Chain- aecyparis. A knowledge of the summer mean i- essential when introducing exotics. A knowledge of the possibilities of forest 36 - S V L V I C V L T D R E. growth in a given country implies a knowledge of the mean summer temperature. Some very modest trees are unreliable as indicators or ther- mometers (i. e. Pinus echinata, Pinus ponderosa). C. A species may be grown far from its original habitation, provided that the local climate of the new region is analogous to that of the old. If the exotic conies from a warmer climate, it should be placed on south slopes with plenty of sun; if it comes from a colder climate it should be placed in moist soil and on cool aspects. There is no such thing as adaptation of trees to a different climate, or as acclimatization of trees. Walnut. Peach, and Black Locust have been grown in Germany for centuries, be- cause the climate of naturalization was and is essentially identical with that of the natural habitat of the tic-. D. Tree specimens of a cold climate do not possess in them- selves any special power of resistance to frost. It i> useless to import seeds from colder climates in the hope of obtaining greater hardiness (Douglas Fir from Oregon and from Colorado differ, how- ever, in hardiness). E. Species of trees growing in hot localities or else in open stands place comparatively small claim- on the fertility of the soil. All species bear shade better when broughl to a wanner climate and require more light when brought to a colder one (White Pine). F. In level countries, at not over 500 ft. elevation, the habita- tion of a species depends on latitude considerably modified by sea winds. In many countries, away from the ocean, that modification i> no strong a- to create a dependence of the habitation more on longitudes than on latitudes. In high mountain regions, altitude may produce effects similar to those of latitude: it is. therefore, a mistake to label one species as a mountain species and another as a plains' species. In Eastern North America Picea rubens, in Western North America Douglas Kir. also Abies grandis and ama- bilis. bear witness to this truism. C4. The climatic needs of a species are better characterized by the forest zone than by the latitude or the altitude at which or up to which it grows. Even a knowledge of altitude and latitude combined furnishes insufficient information relative to such cli- matic needs. H. If, in a given climatic zone, there are found two neighbor- ing species of the same genus, it is safe to. assume that these two species were not mixed originally, but that each had its dis- tinct habitation and that the mixture is due to the action of man. 37 (SYLVICULTURE. I. In primitive forests the species which harmonize are those which differ botanically. J. When two species are so alike as to be almost varieties but have, nevertheless, different climatic needs, then they are. in reality. true and distinct species (Douglas Fir in Colorado and Oregon). K. Frost injury is always due to the death of the plasmodium killed by the direct action of the frost. The plasmodium i- mosl sensitive during the time of cell formation and of active growth. The plasmodium in the inert stage, as in seeds, is actually insensitive. L. All species become mine hardy as they grow older. This is simply due to the trees rising above the cold layers of temperature near the ground and to the greater thickness and mass of the trunk, resisting rapid changes of temperature. M. The degree of moisture in the air required for forest growth is 50% relative humidity during the growing season. The broad- leaved trees and the two and three needled Pines are the species best adapted to regions of extreme dryness or of sudden changes in atmospheric moisture. N. The association of trees into a forest has the effect of in- creasing the relative humidity by not to exceed 10%. Hence the necessity of maintaining forest in regions where the tension of watery vapor is close to 50%. The partial destruction of a forest may entail the death of the remainder rendering reforestation impos- sible unless it is started from the nearest adjoining forest. Inside a forest the greater atmospheric humidity acts as beneficially as a moist ocean wind, lacking, however, the latter's violence. O. It is in moist, cool localities (mountains and northern cli- mate) that climatic variations are the least extreme during the growing season. It is here that the annual rings are equal, the grain fine and regular, and the timber of the greatest commercial utility. P. The moister the climate, the easier becomes forest culture, and the forester is apt to make the least mistakes in thinnings, regeneration, fellings, etc. Air moisture seems to exercise a favor- able influence on the straightness of the stems. Q. It is known that a failure of rain for several days may be fatal to young plants. The faculty of persistence increases with age, and the grown trees can endure long periods of drought. If, however, the lack of rain is such as to bring the sum total of precipitations during the four months of the growing season below the two-inch mark, then the forest disappears, even if the humidity 38 SYLVICULTURE. of the air remains above 50%. Exception — immediate neighborhood of lakes and rivers with their sub-soil percolation. R. A fairly moist soil is the best for all species in their optimum climate. In hotter places the locality must be more damp, while in colder ones it may be dry without hindering growth (White Pine in the Pink Beds in swamps, in Canada on dry soil; Sitka Spruce in Washington in swamps; in Alaska on dry land). S. Snow protects those parts of a plant which it covers; it increases the danger, however, for the parts just above the snow level. Snowy winters are, therefore, useful to low plants, but harmful to trees (except broad-leaved trees). T. As regards the winds, the most dangerous are those which follow the direction of the barometric minima, which in Eastern America travel from east to west; in Europe from west to east; in East Asia from south to north. Next dangerous are the winds traveling in the opposite direction, whilst those from other points of the compass are more harmless. Every mountain, however, cre- ates a deflection of the current and possibly a return in the oppo- site direction. U. In their youth trees are almost indifferent to the quality of the soil; with increasing age their exigencies increase. Thus plantations on poor soil may thrive well for a number of years, only to be suddenly arrested at the beginning of the pole stage. V". In their most suitable Bituation (natural optimum) a species succeeds on soil of any mineral description. In a less favorable climate the soil requirements of the species increase. W. The light most favorable to activity of the chlorophyll is not the light of the blazing sun, nor is it the diffused light coming through rain or fog, but that light which is reflected by brilliant white clouds. Leaf cover overhead is favorable when it filters the rays of a burning sun and unfavorable when it excessively reduces the intensity of insolation. Under a continental climate, cloudless days are more numerous than near the coast. The influ- ence of thinnings and removal cuttings on the remaining growth consequently depends on the continental position of a forest — not solely on species and soil. X. The regeneration of forests approaching exploitable age is easiest in their optimum climate. If the climate is too warm, seed will be more abundant, and the young plants will endure cover better. The moisture of the air, however, is wanting, and the 39 SYLVICULTl RE, denser cover overhead may intercept too much of the needed rain- fall. If the climate is too cold, the moisture of the air indeed increases; but the production of seeds and the persistence under cover decrease. Y. In mixed forests artificial regeneration is more difficult than natural regeneration. A clean felling results in a capricious com- plication of natural laws and phenomena whose contrary actions are not easily understood. Natural regeneration, a mixture of species suitable to the locality, a crop resembling as closely as pos- sible the primitive state, such are the conditions which the forester should seek to realize for the avoidance of dangers as well as for the greater possible yield of the most valuable produce. No method of treatment harmonizes better with nature's laws than the so-called selection system, when each tree is placed in a con- dition most favorable to its development, and when no single tree is removed for a purpose other than that of regeneration or im- provement of the crop. 40 CHAPTER II. Paragraph IX. Genesis of the high forest and its methods. Wood crops can be started either naturally I from stump shoots, root suckers and self-sown Beed) or artificially (by planting seeds, seedlings or cuttings). Forests starting from stump shoots, root- suckers and cuttings are called "coppice forests." Forests start- ing from seeds or - llings are termed "high forests." A. Planting in Europe. Up to 1830 Beed planting only was practiced to start high forests artificially. Since then seedling planting has gradually con- quered the European field, especially in the east' of Yellow and White Pine, Spruce. Ash, Maple and Larch. Bi h and Fir are invariably regenerated abroad from self-sown seed; also Oak in France, while in Germany acorns are usually planted. B. Advisability of planting in America. Excepting the case of the prairies and. possibly the case of fields abandoned by farmers in the Eastern state-, the idea of artificial propagation of forest crops (by planting) seems preposterous in America. As long as an acre of virgin forest can be bought for a 1 r sum of money than is required, in the same locality, for the successful reforestation of an acre of ground, the chances for a remunerative outcome of planting seem very -lim. However, the following points should not be lost sighl of: I. The stumpage prices apt to prevail in America in the year 1960 are likely to equal those now prevailing abroad. Hence the same practice which is now remunerative abroad must prove paying in this country: possibly more paying for the reason that the value of the soil on which the growing crop must yield an annual dividend i- abroad about ten times as high as it i- in the United States. IT. An expense for taxes and administration i~ incurred annually by the forest owner, whether the forest ground i- kept fully or only partly stocked: hence it seems a remunerative venture to— at least — reinforce natural regeneration by artificial planting. III. The growth of weeds naturally plentiful in primeval con- ditions cannot he overcome unless radical artificial remedies are adopted. £7 SYLVICULTURE. C. On the other hand, the following objections to planting must be considered: I. As long as the American forest is much endangered by fire, it is unwise to invest any money in young growth for which the danger of destruction by fire is excessive. II. Trees of a condition now considered "weeds" may gradually attain a stumpage value (as Chestnut at Biltmore). III. Even European forestry is now reverting to a natural propa- gation of forests owing to the dangers usually inherent to artificial planting. D. Definitions. The word reforestation is used if the area to be planted has been previously occupied by tree growth. The word afforestation is used if there was no tree growth on tha plot for a number of years beforehand. Paragraph X. The Seed. The quality of seeds is shown by their size, weight, color, scent. A tree standing in an open position, not too young and not too old, produces the best seeds. A. Seed years: The atmospheric conditions of the year or years during which the seed is formed further influence the quality of the seed. Drought in summer and early frosts in fall cause the seeds to drop immature. Black Oaks and Pines require two years for the formation of seeds. Juniper three years. It seems as if all trees require a number of years for the preparation of seeds, inasmuch as the medullary rays before a seed year are found full of starch, and after a seed year devoid of starch. This phenomenon may explain the periodical occurrence of seed years in Bamboo and Canebrakes, in Chestnut, Oak, Beech, Pine, etc. The length of the period elapsing between seed years depends on the local climate and the position of the trees, being short for trees standing in orchard-like positions on warm and sheltered ground where abundant heat allows of the rapid accumulation of starch. B. Rest: After dropping from the tree, all seeds undergo a period of rest in our climate. This rest is very short in the case of Cottonwood, Willow, Elm and Soft Maple. In the majority of cases, in Eastern North America, it lasts from November to April. In rare cases (German Ash. German Linden, Red Cedar, Hornbeam) the period of inactivity covers about seventeen months. Seeds which get too dry 42 SYLVICULTURE. while stored, often show a prolonged period of rest. For White Oak seed the period of rest is only two months; for Red Oak five months. The assumption that frost is required during the resting period for the benefit of the seed is erroneous. The germinating percentage is greatest immediately at the conclusion of the period of rest. 0. Tests: Germinating tests are made with from 50 to 200 grains. 1. Water test applicable to large seeds. Thrown in water the good seeds will sink, and the bad seeds will float. II. Cutting tests, made with a knife, used for testing acorns, chestnuts, nuts of Xutpines, also seeds of Ash, Yellow Popla Beech, etc. III. Hot-pan tests for conifers, which causes good seeds to jump and burst, poor seeds to burn and char. IV. Pot tests made in the following manner: Fill the lower half of a flower pot with sawdust, the upper half with sand in which the seeds are embedded. Place the pot in a basin partially filled with Winter, in a warm room. V. Ilannel test: Place the seeds between two strips of flannel kept moist by running their ends into a bowl of water standing at a lower level. VI. Test in the commercial-test apparatus, which consists of bottom plate (glass or china), a bell-shaped top (same material) and a clay disk containing 100 small groove, which tits into the bottom plate. All three parts are open in the center. The clay disk is burned in such a way as to retain good hygroscopic qualities, and is boiled for a number of hours (in water) before using, to kill adherent spores of fungi. Moist sand is kept hot ween the disk and the bottom plate. The grains are inserted into the grooves Paragraph XI. Preparations for planting seed on open ground. The germinating bed must offer the seed a proper, constant and equal supply of heat, oxygen and moisture. The actual amount of heat, oxygen and moisture required has not been ascertained scien- tifically. Observation in the woods is the best teacher of the condi- tions securing the largest possible germinating percentage for any given species. The preparation for seed-planting may extend over the entire area to be planted; or only over certain strips which may be inter- rupted or continuous: or it may merely involve the grubbing of plots or spots. Where the ravages of game or mice are feared, irregular working is advisable. 43 s VLV ICll/JT i: E. A. Removing the soil covers, such as briars, Kalmia. Chinquapin, mosses, dead leaves, humus. A plow and grubber (cultivator) it a barrow can usually nut he used for the purpose; the In"- (a strong make) i- largely used abroad; weeds arc removed with brush hooks or scythes or machetes or are, if possible, killed by deadening. In certain cases an iron rake might do. Often it i- necessary to remove the cover by tire: tire, however, produces a heavy growth of weeds on fertile soil (as in Pisgah forest). B. Loosening the -oil. Jnst after logging, the -oil has enough porosity to allow of the development of a second growth. On aban- doned fields or in prairies thorough working with the plow, often continued for a number of years, may or musl precede the act of planting. Paragraph XII. Securing and preparing the seeds. A. European tree seeds are usually bought from reliable dealer-. who rival in furnishing the best seed at the lowest price, guarantee- ing a certain percentage to germinate. In America, the forester musl secure seeds himself, collecting them by contract, or preferably, by day work. Some European sylviculturists in-i-t that seeds should be taken only from the best and strongest trees. Mayr considers special care superfluous. B. Under "coning' is understood the method of obtaining seeds of coniferous species from their cones. Coning of Spruce. Pine, Fir and Larch on a commercial scale is practiced in Europe by Henry Keller. Appel & < o. and A. Lecoq, all of Darmstadt. Germany. Certain Pine species (Nutpines) have wingless seeds. The wings of other Pine seeds hold the grain in a claw. The seed of Spruce lies in the wing as in a spoon; the seed of Larch and Fir is attached to the wing and is not easily separated. Among the broad-leaf cone bearers —Alders. Birches and Magno- lias— the coning of Magnolias only offers some difficulties. I. The methods of coning are a- follows: a. Coning by insolation, the oldest and safest method. Tray-, the bottoms of which contain open lath work or wire netting, are placed in the sun and removed to a shed if rain threaten- to fall. 'I he cones are -pread on the trays in layers not over two cones deep and are stirred with a rake. In place of trays, drum- mighl lie used to g 1 advantage. In a cold climate the sun process allow- ,,f obtaining the seeds only at a time too late for - 1 planting. The germinating percentage of seeds obtained by the sun process i-. otherwise, superior to that of seeds coned by other methods. b. Coning by stove heat. 44 S Y L V I C U L T U R E. It is essential that the heat in the coning room should not reach 110 degrees. Thorough ventilation is required to prevent sweating and moulding of cones. The cones are spread in the coning- room in thin layers on shelves or screens, through the interstices of which the seeds drop. The cones are stirred three or four times a day. It is unwise to have the stove in the coning-room. An American hot-air furnace in the basement is well adapted to furnish the heat. Many of the large European forestry administrations have such or similar establishments for coning. c. Commercial method. In the commercial establishments, heat i- supplied l>v steam pipes, controlled by automatic devices. The trays or drums arc kept in a constant rocking motion by machinery. The seeds, after falling through the crevices of the trays, arc at once conducted to a cool room. II. Separating seeds from their wings. In the case of Pine and Spruce seeds. Hailing is sufficient. It is not advisable to wet the seeds before flailing. For Larch, rubber millstones are used, the distance between the stones being equal to the smallesl diameter of the seed. III. Cleaning the seed from dust, needle- and wings. The seeds are freed from admixtures by tanning, shoveling, centrifuge or any grain-cleaning machine. The large commercial establishments drop the seeds on endless rolls of cloth, which are moving on an incline. The heavy seeds slide down, whilst dust and wings are carried uphill. IV. Statistical note-. a. Spruce in the Adirondack- latter Clifford lb Pettis). 1. Cost of picking cones 50c per bushel (green). 2. One bushel of green cones yields two bushels of dry ci nes, containing 1% lbs. equal to 1 \ •■ qts. of Spruce seeds. 3. One bushel of cones weigh- 60 lbs., one bushel of seeds 40 lbs. 4. One pound of seed contains 150,000 grains. 5. Tt costs 95c to collect, cone and clean one pound of seeds. 1>. White Tine at Biltmore. 1. 100 bushels of cones will weigh 2.21)0 lbs. (a "long ton"). 2. One bushel contains 000 to 700 cone-, and yield-, on an average, yz lb. of absolutely clean, wingless seeds. 3. One pound of such seed contains 2.1.000 to 30,000 grains. c. Yellow Pine ( ponder osa) in Xew Mexico (after Win. H. Mast). 1. One bushel of cones yields 1.55 lbs. of clean seed. 2. The expense of collecting, coning and cleaning averages 23c per pound. 45 SYLVICULTURE. (I. Colorado Blue Spruce in New Mexico (after Win. II. Mast). 1. One bushel of cones yields 1.2 lbs. of clean seeds. 2. The expense of coning, collecting and cleaning averages 23c per pound. c Short leaf Pine at Biltmore (Pinus echinata). One bushel of cones yields one pound of clean, wingless seeds at an expense of $1.00 per pound. C. Seeds stored beyond the duration of their natural period of resl snow a reduced percentage of germination. The percentage might be increased by the use of slightly acid solutions, lime water or hoc water. Coniferous seeds are often placed in cold water for from three to seven days previous to planting; seeds thus treated, however, must be supplied with moisture artificially after planting if drought sets in. D. ihe ''malting" of seeds (placing the seeds in heaps, moisten- ing them and stirring them in a warm room) is a rather dangerous procedure. After Weise, -Douglas Fir and White Pine seeds should be mixed with moist and fertile soil and stable manure, to be then exposed to a hot-house temperature until the germs begin to show. S. B. Green recommends to pour boiling water on the seeds of Locust. Honey-Locust and Coffee-tree, and to allow the seeds to remain in the water until it is cold, planting immediately there- after. Paragraph XIII. Actual planting of seeds on open ground. Seeds should not be planted on rainy days, especially not <>n clay soil. For broadcast planting, the area to be planted and the seed are divided into equal lots. The quantity of seed allotted to the unit of space is subdivided into halves. Each half is -own separately by Lining over the ground crosswise. Broadcast planting is rare nowadays. Rough nursery beds, (either running full length of the area or interrupted beds), furrows or banks are frequently provided. Nar- row trenches may be pressed into the beds or banks with the help of a board, a hoe handle or a wheel. The seed is usually sown by hand, possibly with the help of a I r bottle, a so-called seed horn and. rarely, with a seed- planting machine. The machine should only be used on ground as well prepared as a wheat field (prairies or abandoned fields). On land newly cleared, roots and stumps prevent the use of a machine. 4G S 1 L V I C U L T U R E. " Covering " purports to place or rather press the seeds into contact with the mineral soil on all sides; to prevent sudden changes of air temperature from striking the seed; to prevent the seeds from drying out under excessive exposure to the air. The cover must be such as to allow a young germ to push its cotyle- dons easily through the cover. The seeds keeping their cotyledons below ground (Oaks, Sassafras, Chestnut) allow of a heavy cover. In the case of coniferous seeds, a proper cover is secured with the rake or with a brush drag; or by marching the planters, a band of sheep or a herd of cattle over the plantation. Heavy seeds are often strewn on the ground without any preparation and then covered with a shovelful of dirt. In America seed-planting in the open is an unadvisable measure as long as the prices of seeds maintain their present figure. "Planting of cones" was the leading method used a hundred year-- ago by European foresters. The cones were strewn on the ground and stirred periodically by sheep, with good results. Seeds more than one-quarter inch thick, especially nuts, are usually dibbled with dibbling hammer, wedge, knife, hoe, spade, etc. The hole made should place the seed at the best depth. The hole is closed by side pressure, by the foot or the hammer, or by allow- ing a lifted sod to drop back in place. The common planting spade often puts the seeds too deep. A. The quantity of seeds used per acre depends on: Price of seed. Density of stand desired. Tenderness, sensitiveness and rate of growth of species. Local damage from' late frost, drought, weeds, insects, mice, squirrel-, rabbits, game, birds, etc. Quality of both soil and seeds. Fineness of prepared soil. Method of planting by hand or machine, regular or irregular, broadcast or in patchwork. Planting seeds in bands or strips only requires two-thirds or three-fourths of broadcast amount: planting in patches one-half, in holes one-fourth of the same. B. Figures adopted at Biltmore for broadcast planting arc. per acre: White Oak and Chestnut Oak. 12 bu. Red oak and Black Oak. 8 bu. Ash. 40 lbs. Beech. 130 lbs. Maple. 40 lbs. 47 s V L VI CULT l ■ l; I . Elm, :>4 lbs. Birch, 32 lbs. Kirs. 4.'. Lbs. Spruce, Hi lbs. Larch, in lbs. Ycilnw Pine, 8 His. White Pine, 12 lbs. ('. Small seeds: Number of seeds in one pound (approximately, all eoniferous seeds withoul wings): Ash '. . . . 6,200 Elm ~ 55,000 Silver Fir 9,000 Tamarack Td.iioii White Pine 30,000 Maple 5,000 Birch 80,000 Spruce 56,000 Yellow Pine 70,000 D. Large seeds: Number (if seeds in one bushel are: White Oak. 8,000; Red Oak. 3,00(1: Walnuts. 800. Paragraph XIV. Season for seed planting on open ground. For Cottonwoods, Elms (excepting Red or Slippery Elm). Soft Maple. Black, Birch and Mulberry, the besl time id' planting i- nature's time, — immediately after the fall of the seeds — in early summer. In the ease of the species enumerated, the period of rest is very short and the seedlings starting rapidly have time to lig- nil'y before winter. In all other cases the forester can plant either in fall or in spring. Planting in winter is usually prevented by the condition of the soil. A. Planting in fall invites: I. Inroads of animals in winter. II. Washing of seed when snow melts. III. Damage from late frost, since planted seed- sprout early in spring. P>. Spring planting necessitates: I. Expense for seed storage over winter. IT. Cheeks during storage, injurious to germinating percentage. III. Higher expense for planting, planting taking place at a time when labor is scarce. Spring planting forms the rule, except with fir. Beech, Chest- nut, White Oak. SYLVICULTURE. In semi-tropical regions or places of periodical drought, the best planting time is the fortnight preceding the rainy period. On dry soil seeds are planted as early in spring as possible so as to profit from the moisture left l>y melting snow. Seeds which naturally germinate 18 months after maturity (Red Cedar, Hornbeam, some Ashes, some Basswoods) require strati- fication: Place seeds, in dry soil, in a ditch ten inches deep and ten inches wide, to a depth of five inches. Cover seeds with straw and dry weeds, and finally with dirt. After the lapse of a year the seeds arc ready for planting. Paragraph XV. Auxiliaries to seed planting. A. .Means to protecl species needing shade in earliest youth. I. Plant seeds with oats, barley or summer rye. planting the grain seed in quantities nol to t'\rfr<\ 7-V ; ,,f the normal. Cut grain crops high. This method «^ used regularly loo year- ago, for European Tine and White Oak, possibly with a view to early returns, possibly re distract ravages of held mice and birds. II. Certain species, tender and shade demanding in early youth like Beech and Fir, cannot well he raised in the open, unless an usher growth 12 to 15 years older (of Yellow Pine, Sassafras, Black Locust, Birch) i- previously started on the ground. The usher growth i- graduallj removed when the seedlings underneath want "skylight." In semi-arid parts such usher growth is perhaps doubly advisable; further in prairies, where Poplars and Willows. Box Elders and Soft Maple might serve as ushers (also Locust). P.. Means to protect the seed plantation from animals and weeds. I. Against seed-eating animals. Planting in late spring offers some protection. Planting in sprouting condition protects heavj seeds from rodents; 3light coating of red lead protects conifers from birds. A watchman might he kept on large plantations, to scare the birds away. By coating large seeds with tar, crows might he kept away. II. Light cover of weeds i- no disadvantage. Where weed- arc heavy, seedlings should he planted, rather than seeds. Mowing (with scythe) weeds and ferns, crushing briars- preferably before weeds are seeding — is recommended. Where seeds are planted in rows or furrows on abandoned field-, cultivation check- weed-. ITT. Pasture is not allowed in seed plantations before the thicket stage is past. C. Reinforcing. Bare -pot- where seed planting has failed are tila^-vic^i Je*^ <~t^-^-*w ^^f - 5 LVICULTURE. usually reinforced by planted seedlings. The latter are taken from adjoining dense Bpots. In broad-leaved species., the blanks where planting has failed, had better be marked during the preceding summer. Paragraph XVI. Planting seeds of the broad-leaved species. A. Acorns. The germinating acorn leaves the cotyledons below ground. If the first shoot is killed another forms at once. A shelter (or usher) growth to husband a plantation during its first years is hardly needed. Still plantations of Yellow Pine made to protect the Oaks planted between the Pines are often found abroad. Its long tap root prevents the Oak from being lifted by frost. The soil cover given varies between one and three inches, according to the looseness and porosity of the soil. In case of spring sowing, germination requires from five to six weeks. At Biltmore, White Oak and Chestnut Oak acorns planted in fall are often found sprouting before Christmas. The germ in such cases, however, does not appear above the ground. Red Oak and Black Oak seem to sprout only in spring. Acorns may be sown broadcast, especially on abandoned fields. Formerly acorns wTere planted often with oats and barley or summer rye. The cover is given with a harrow in case of broadcast planting. More often acorns are planted in furrows from two to seven feet apart. It is better to plant acorns closely within furrows far apart, than sparingly in furrows near together. The cover is given either by a second furrow or by hoe or rake. Cultivation between rows (during summer) is not practiced aoroad. On abandoned fields at Biltmore it seems required for the pin pose of checking mice, squirrels and rabbits. Where acorns are planted for mixture merely with Beech, Pine and Chestnut, the planting in irregular patches or else " oversoiling " are often used. In the latter case a handful of acorns is roughly covered by a shovelful of dirt. The usual method adopted abroad for raising Oak is dibbling. The answer to the question whether spring or fall planting is better, depends on the number of enemies preying on the acorns in winter. Since the Black Oaks are not much molested, it might be as well to plant them in fall. Black Oaks suffer little in germinat- ing percentage during winter storage. White Oak acorns, however, are much eaten by mice, squirrels, turkeys, hogs, etc., and would 50 S Y L V I OU L X U R E. be planted in spring it winter storage did not invite a large loss of germinating percentage. For wintering White Oak acorns, it i- best to place them (imitating nature) in slight layers under a cover of humus on fairly dry soil. After Charles Heyer: Large baskets are roughly made on dry soil, the bottom and walls lined with moss: within are placed alternate layers of moss or sand and acorns. The basket is roofed with straw. After Von Alemann: Ditches S feet wide by 10 inches deep are made on dry soil. The acorns must not be too wet when put into the ditch. The cover consists of a layer of vegetable matter. A_ rough hut is made all over the ditch, out of -labs. bark, twigs, etc. The acorns are stirred up twice a week during winter. Beyer's method also requires a steep-walled ditch around the place ( f storage to keep mice out. Possibly it might he wise to keep sacked acorn- submerged in running water. B. Chestnuts. Chestnuts require more fertile and hence better-prepared soil than acorns. The nut lias still more enemies than the White Oak acorn. Its germinating power is much reduced by dry storage over winter. The devices for storing acorns might he used as well for chestnuts. Possibly storage in the husk is preferable. At Bilt- more planting of Chestnut on abandoned fields is very unsuccessful, owing to enemies and poorness of soil. But abandoned fields in Pisgah Forest often show fair growth of chestnut — on better soil, especially on moister soil. Xo experience is at hand relative to nut- plantations on good land newly cut over. Chestnuts dibbled in at Biltmore to form a lower story beneath Yellow Pine are always eaten by squirrels. C. Walnuts. Walnuts, both Black and White, can be held over winter like potatoes, without loss. Yet fall planting is better where squirrels do not endanger the nuts. Walnut has done well planted in furrows on abandoned fields at Biltmore where soil was good, without cultivation: on poor soil the weeds are choking it to death. The dibbling of walnut into woods just cut over has been badly handicapped in Bilt- more and Pisgah Forest by Bquirrels. Otherwise dibbling is the best method in the woods. Possibly the attacks ,,f squirrels might he prevented by late-spring dibbling of nuts in sprouting condition. D. Birch. Bircn seeds are very small, two-winged. European price for Betula lenta. lutea and nigro, $2.50 per lb.: Betula papyrifera, 51 ^ S Y I. VIC r LT I i; E. 62c per II'.: for European White Birch (Betula alba), 8c per lb. Germinating percentage i- bad, especially it seeds me uo1 kepi in loose storage. The -oil requires little preparation for seed plant- ing. A large layer of humus must lie removed. Seed can be planted any time from tall to spring. The old foresters used t<> plant the seed on the snow, -so as to have the seeds washed into the soil by melting snow. The southern Birches, being solitary, tnighl he planted in irregular patches or trenches, or in places where the mineral -oil is exposed by the tali of trees whirled out of the ground with stump- and roots. European Birch is very modest, thriving well on dry soil. The seedlings are very hardy. They Buffer, however, from grass or leaves blown over them and depriving them of air and sunlight. Betula lenta, at Biltmore, i- apt to ••damp off/' E. Beech. Xut.; appear every three to seven years in the wood-. The nut- ripening in October had heller he planted at once after ripening, though much endangered in winter \<\ mice. Storage over. winter, possible as in White' Oak acorn-, requires -till more care. If spring planting is resorted to. nuts germinate within live or six weeks. Beech seedlings must have a shelter growth, arid cannol survive in the open (excepting moist mountain slopes). The prepara- tion of soil is made with hoe or spade roughly, to a depth of three inches. Abroad, Beech is often used for an undergrowth in pole woods of Pine, Oak, Tamarack. Ash. etc.. with a view to im- proving the humus and. indirectly, the holes of the tie.- forming the upper story. " Beech .is the mother of the -oil." because it furnishes tie' besl humus. B :h i- exacting; it requires strong and moist -oil. Pure forests of Beech are found at Biltmore at 6.000 feet elevation; and extensively in Swain country at 1,000- 4,500 feet, with Poplar- a- standards in an upper story. The price of German Beechnuts is two pounds for five cent-. P. Alders. The western Alder. Alnus Oregqna, ami the European Aldei are valueahle. while the eastern Alder is only a shrub lining the creek-. European Alder i- invaluable as a swamp tree and for plantations on very binding soil (clay pits). The seed of the European species is worth 10 cents per pound. Seeds ripen in Octobei am! arc liest kept over winter IV tin- cone-. The -mall seedling i- not sensitive t" heaf and cold, hut suffers under the heavy grass usually found in swamps. Since swamps are inaccessible . S V L V If U L T U R E. in early spring, — planting of seedlings is preferable to planting of seeds. G. Ash. ■ ^/ Seeds are abundant, showing about 70% germination. The seedling, in the first year, develops to a length of eight or ten inches, from seeds covered with three-eighths inches of dirt. Little preparation of soil is needed. During the first two years, on good soil, a heavy shelter overhead is easily borne. American White Ash may be grown in slightly swampy soil, or soil subject to long inundations. Prices of Ash see* European Ash 4c per pound: White . Ash. 25c per pound. * At Biltmore, White Ash seeds planted in rows six feet apart, on abandoned fields, have done well when soil cover was not too heavy. H. Maple. Hard Maple seeds ripen in September. Silvei seeds in June. H is wise to plant the seeds jusl daily American species. Price of seeds: Acer r pound; Silver Maple, $1.00 per pound: European species, 4c to 5c per pound: Sugar .Maple. 80c per pound. The green germ of Amer- ican Maples is said to die if the seds are not at once planted. Sofi Maples develop the seedling in the year of the seed. For seeds lo be planted in woods, the soil is prepared with the rake, and the seeds covered with one-half inch -it -oil. .Maple planted on abandoned fields on Northern slope-, well watered and well drained, is likely to be successful. 'I he young seedlings are sensitive, and a cover overhead is advisable, where late frosl prevails. On rocky soil in Northern cove-. Maple seed is often strewn on the rocks, the rain being expected to wash 1 he seeds into 1 he crevice-. At Kill more. Hard Maple is found only al elevations exceeding 3,500 feet. Sugar Maple is more exacting i in -oil) than Soft Maple. It doe- ii"t e-row as well in swampy -<>il a- Soft or Red Maple. Acer negundo (Ash Leaf Maple) doe- very well in 'the northern prairie-. Seeds ripen in fall. 1. Kims. Seed- Hat. roundish, winged, the wing surrounding the seeds. Seeds, ripening in June, must be planted at once, since they cannot be kept.in dry storage (except slippery Elm pubescens). Germinat- ing percentage is always small. Elms require such good -oil that they can be raised only on strong, northern, moist soil of agri- cultural value. Never planted broadcast; in suitable localities, seed SYLVICULTURE. mighl be planted in patches on soil roughly prepared with rake. \"ii \ little cover must be given. Seeds cost: Uhnus americana 22c per pound. Ulmus campestria (ic per pound. J. Buckeye. The Asiatic species is valuable in deer parks, its fruit being eaten by deer and boar. The American species are poisonous (flava and glabra). Seeds ripen in October, winter well, but can as well be planted in fall. After Weise, the seeds should be planted with the navel down. First class soil (Ohio) is required, or at Biltmore strong North coves at higher altitudes, where Buckeye is some: times found in small groves. Planted in furrows od abandoned fields (Biltmore), Buckeye has shown rapid progress during the first year, but has since made small shoots only. Seeds of the Asiatic species cost 2y4c per pound. K. Black Locust, 1 The seeds ripen in fall and are easily kept over winter un- injured by mice, birds or insects. To prevent seeds from lying over, S. B. Green advises to pour boiling water over them just before planting, a treatment causing many seeds to sproul at once. The fleshy, oval cotyledons and the primordial leaves are not pinnate. The tree is an exception to the rule of optimum depth of covering (the depth of long diameter of seed) since it dues best wiien covered 2 to 3 inches deep. The seedlings are sensitive to late frosts. The planting had better be delayed until the danger of frost is past. The price of seeds, 5-10c per pound, renders Locust seeds the cheapest - I obtainable since the germinating percentage is high. The seedlings grow until late fall, when they reach nearly two feet in height. At Biltmore, Black Locust is planted into Oak coppice on raked patches, with the rake, and on abandoned fields in furrows 5 to 6 feet apart. Five pounds per acre is enough. Plan- tations suffer from ground mice and. later on, from a moth. Locusl thrives on exhausted agricultural soil and is used in Europe exclusively to reforest the Hungarian prairies; further along rail- road cuts. Forest-grown Locust is much superior to field-grown Locust. L. Hickories. The nuts of the thin-shelled species (ovata and minimal can- not be held over winter and need fall planting. S 1 plantations suffer from mice and squirrels, and especially from voles, which bite off the seedlings below ground, row after row. Bitternui seems exempt from such attacks. The seedling, in the lir-i years, 54 SYLYI#ULTL RE. spends all its energy in developing a large tap root. The planta- tions at Biltmore made in furrows on abandoned fields might have been better, had they been cultivated continuously to check the mice and voles. Hickoria ovata, 13c per pound; Bitternut, Pignut or Mockernut, loc per pound. Hickory needs fertile, fresh the "Hickory flats" in virgin forest are convertible into superior farm land. *■"' M. Linden or Basswood. Seeds falling in early fall are always poor. The ripe seed (in bunches, attached to wingbracts) falls in late fall or winter. Linden is very exacting and pure woods are very rare. Planted in the forest, it serves only as an admixture. Seeds are planted in sprin on soil roughly prepared with rake or hoe. The cotyledon typically five-pronged, hand shaped. The young plant is so seii sitive that cover overhead is strongly advisable X. Cucumber tree. Seeds ripening in cones late in fall are removed with great trouble by hand. Many seeds lie over. The seeding develops on good soil a very long and strong shaft. For forest planting. Cucumber is used only in patches, mixed with Chestnut and Yellow- Poplar. / "^^BTTellow Poplar or Tulip Tree. Seeds appear annually: of wry low germinating percentage Nature plants the seed between October and May. slowly dis- membering the cone. Seeds may he planted in spring after loose storage. The cones are apt to heat and mould, if tightly packed. The cotyledons (size of a nickel) do not show the typical lack of the tip of the leaf blade. They drop oil' (in strong seedlings) before July 15th. Seedlings do not sutler from mice. Heavy rains, however, are apt to wash them out of the ground. The young seedling stands a good deal of shade. If deprived of ligbl entirely, it is certain to be killed by the first frost. Seeds cost 15c per pound. Large quantities are required for planting, say 50 pounds per acre. -Elajitations at Bilinear pare Miter t'ailuu1. - pr rvuri^rr jfrjout feUfgd. The seedling grows very fast when young; at the age of two years the seedling is three feet high, on good soil. Where planted in the woods it i- necessary to check the weed- especially on north slopes. P. Sassafras. It might lie planted on poor abandoned fields as usher growth. At Biltmore, seeds gathered in late summer have failed to sprout. whether planted in fall' or spring. The fleshy cotyledon i- kept S V L VI CULTURE. below ground at a depth of say one and one-half inches. Possibly, the seed must pass through a bird before ii can sprout, or the flesh be peeled off by hand or by malting. Q. I '.lack Cherry. Primeval trees arc found only on fairly rich soil. The Cherry, however, can be easily raised on abandoned fields not bettei than those at Biltmore. During early youth, until pole stage, mice and rabbits peel the bark badly. The end of the annual shoot is almosl always killed in winter. The small wm&^mul^ ripening in early autumn are eagerly eaten by biters'. The seeds, after passing through the bird, arc scattered all over the woods. The seeds are isily kept in winter, but lie over if kepi in a dry condition. A hot- water bath before planting might cause the seeds to germinate simultaneously. In woods. Cherry should be planted under one- half inch dirt cover, irregularly, with full enjoyment of light. Seed "•He per pound. The seeds might be planted in rows on abandoned tield-jnure cheaply than the seedlings. R. Black Gum. Xyssa sylvatica has never been raised on a large scale, owing to the low value of its timber. As an undergrowth or admixture with Hickory, Ash, Oak, etc., it might prove, however, a valuable tree, owing to its dense leaf canopy and owing to its shade- bearing qualities. The seeds, cherry-like, dark blue in fall, of acid taste, seem to appear annually, and old trees are often sur- ' rounded by an abundance of seedlings; the latter, very lighl colored, are four inches high by July, showing two heavy oval entire cotyle- dons, whilst the primordial leaves show the proper form. Seed- lings do not seem to suffer from frost, heat or animals. On abandoned fields, however. Black Cum seems to come up from Sprouts and not from seeds. The seed is not on the market. ^**^ Paragraph XVII. Planting seeds of the coniferous species. A. Firs. W~<l£*A Very intensive shade-bearers, the Firs cannot.be raised without I . shelter overhead. The young seedling sutlers much from frost and ,0-+*r heat. Its six to ten cotyledons show two white stripes on the upper ■+" side. The young plant is apt to die from leaves smothering it. Its height growth, to the seventh year, is small whilst the seedling tries to establish a root system and to cover its growing space by long — i < 1 < • branches. Fir is usually planted in irregular patches as an admixture, moss and mould being raked away. The -ceils l^ jajAA* ^ji£t\ Hy^J* *~^4(J!>^+Jb£ SYLVK U LTLEE. Losing vitality quickly when winter-stored (unless stored in the c nes) are usually planted in tlie tall, in spite of impending ravages of mice and birds. The covering is from one-fifth to one-third ot an inch. Since the cones begin to dissolve in November, they mus! be gathered in early winter. Abies concolor, $3.00 per pound: Abies fraseri, $3.50 per pound; Abies amabilis, $4.50 per pound: Abies balsamea. $1.00 per pound: Abies grandis, $3.00 per pound: Abies magnifica, $5.00 per pound; Abies nobilis, $2.00 per pound; Abies pectinata. 5c per pound. B. Spruce. Seeds ripen in the year of the flower and are emitted from the cones, becoming pendulous, between November and April. The seeds arc easily wintered either within or without the cones; after some authors, preferably in the cones. Seed years occur at intervals of aboul five years. The germinating percentage i- high. The seeds are usually planted late in spring after bird migration, either broadcast on ground roughly raked, or more often on interrupted beds from' one to two feel wide, prepared witb hue and slightly raised over the general ground level. It i- -aid that a man can plant die acre of ground in eight hours, using the rake. Previous to planting it i- wise t" moisten the seeds in cold water for from three to five days, especially if the seeds are planted in late spring. The cover «^ should be one-fifth inch. Germination take- place after four weeks with from six to eighl cotyledons, serial* on the upper side. Young plant- are sensitive tB drougb.1 and readily raised by the frost. Spruce suffers from suppression by weeds and leave-. It- height growth is more rapid than thai of Fir. Prices of seeds: Picea canadensis, $1.10; excelsa, 13c; engelmanni, $5.50; rubens, ^4. J.">: pungens, $5.00; sitkaensis, $5.50 per pound C. bellow Pine < >n dry sandy soil, n i- wise co i find a moister seed bed. The young seedings do not suffer from late frosts and are not apt to he lifted by winter frost. The removal of stumps stops the attack- of -tnmp breeding lark beetles and snout beetle- (weavils). intensive loosening of the -oil invite- the attacks of junebugs, wire worms, etc.. and i- not needed on sandy soil. Broadcast planting i- advisable on -oil slightly covered with grass; the cover should just he scratched with the harrow. The -eed. mde-- planted with the rake, i- embedded in the -oil by driving sheep, cattle and hogs over it. Before planting it might he wise to tire the ground, notablv so in the case of Jack Pine. •n-i-. $5.50 per pound. . I. it i- wise to plant in early spring, so l ,0- S Y L V 1 C '■ U L T U R E. Lodgepole Pine and Norway Pine. Yellow Pine is never planted in patches, since it comes up in larger groups only, of even age. Planted under shelter it would not obtain enough sunlight. The seeds are often planted on long strips two or three feet wide, separated by trenches, the weeds and dirt removed from the trenches being heaped on the strips. On the very driest soil, Jack and Red Pine will do in the north: in the south, Long Leaf Pine. The moisture demands of Pinus taeda exceed those of Pinus mitis. Wet ground is required by Cuban Pine. Pinus ponderosa may grow on any soil and aspect, north and south. European Pine should not be tried in places where snowfall is heavy. The sand dunes at San Francisco are planted in Monterey Pine. A method much used abroad some 80 years ago was the planting of Pine cones (eight bushels of cones per acre). The cones were moved from time to time by a brush drag. Another old method for raising Pine consisted in planting the seeds on top of oats, barley or summer rye. The cover given should be one-fifth of an inch. The seeds are mulched for three to seven days, before planting, in cold water. Old seeds are apt to lie over for a whole year. Germination occur- In from three to four weeks. The first leaves stand singly, and not in sheathed bunches. The primordial leaves are strongly serrate. The germinating percentage is high, say seventy to ninety per cent. The seedlings of Pinus rigida^ creep on the ground the first two years as if dwarfed. Prices: banksiana, $5.00; murrayana, $10.00; inops or virginiana, $1.10; jeffreyi, $4.00; mitis, $10.00; ponderosa, $2.50; pun- gens, $4.50: resinosa, $9.00; rigida, $2.50; European Scotch Pine, 50c ; tuberculata, $4.50; taeda, $10.00; palustris, $4.50 per pound. In Jack Pine, Lodgepole Pine and Table Mountain Pine the seed is not emitted for a number of years from mature cones. At Biltmore, mitis drops the seed between November 1 and December 15; Palustris seeds seem to drop before December 15, since seedlings appear by middle of January. D. White Pine. White Pine seeds cannot be kept as easily over winter as Yellow Pine seeds. The seed matures at Biltmore aboul September 15, and thn falls at once. The European recipe, to gather the seeds when drops of rosin appear on the cones, is misleading. After gathering, the cones should be fully matured by exposure to sunlight. Cones placed in heavy layers — over six inches— after gathering are apt to mould, when the seeds will be destroyed. White Pine emits seeds easily, placed in light layers on wire netting, when heat is applied, and when the cones are stirred several times a day. The 58 Jis\A^~> Au^6m Jus*XlA >-« Z& %**r% •C&ward the end of September, are very small o&n (J2 SYLVICULTURE. i aoms in which Uie coning takes place must be well ventilated. Seed year- occur in the South every three years — in the North say every -even years. Mulching before planting is absolutely neces- sary. Germination after three to four weeks: seven to ten cotyle- dons, primordial leaves singly. Seedlings sutler still more from fungi (honey fungus) than Yellow Pines. Owing to the high price of seeds of White Pine, the seed is usually planted in nurseries only. An ex- periment at Biltmore, namely planting of seed without preceding preparation of soil in patches with the rake, under light cover, has proved a failure. White Pine does well on abandoned fields after fires — except on East and Southeast slopes where flat-rooted plant- are apt to be lifted by frost. Germinating percentage only from forty to fifty per cent. Seeds cost about $1.50 per pound. K Hemlock. Seeds mature' easily removable. Seedling- are very -hade bearing and minute. Hemlock cannot be grown in the open. Price of seed being high and natural regeneration being easy, plantations will not be made on a large scale. Price of seeds: canadensis, $3.50; heterophylla. $8.00; mertensiana, $5.50 per pound. F. Larch. The cones are very tough and not easily opened by heat. It is hard to separate the wing from the seed. The germinating percent age is low. The seed is planted in spring on open ground, usually in patches, mixed with Pino. Spruces or Hardwoods. The planting of seed of Northern Tamarack in Northern swamps is out of the question. The height growth in early youth i> rapid. Larch puts heavy demand on light. Cotyledons, five to seven in number, appear four weeks after planting. The seeds are mulched in cold water foj at least a week before planting. The primordial leaves stand singly; brachyblast- are formed only from the third summer <m. Yotmg sl is never -how brachyblasts, but n lies only. Price of seeds: European Larch 50c per pound: Japanese Larch (leptolepis) $2.50 per pound. G. Douglas Fir. It bad better be called Pseudoabies than Pseudotsuga. Cones are ripe in October: bracts are twice as long as scales: seeds fall immediately. Germinating percentage is 20 to 30 per cent.: seed received from dealers i- apt to lie over. Thorough mulching or hot- house treatment (after Weise) increases the percentage and the rapidity k\ sprouting. Germination takes place after five to seven S \ LVIUU I- I I E E. weeks, fhe five to seven cotyledons arc pointed and show two white Btripes and a raised midrib above. Two varieties of Douglas Fir: a. facific Coasl Douglas Fir, growing rapidly, foliage bluish, large cones, two top shoots during summer, the second one usually from a side bud. b. Rocky Mountain Douglas Fir. known as varietas glauca, owing to it- grayish foliage, of very slow growth, greater hardiness, smaller cones, developing only one -I t annually. Price of seed: .-:'>. 7."> per pound. H. Lawson's Cypress. (ones blue brown, globular, only -i\ scales, small, three - Ls under scale, seeds two winged. Wing one-twenty-fifth inch wide. Seeds mature in September and October, falling at once. 150,000 grains per pound. Sprouting with two cotyledons only, one fifth to one-third inch long. Young seedlings stand shade. In the sapling stage, fungi seem to play havoc in the plantations, a fact which may explain the small range of the species. Seed 60c per pound. I. Western Red Cedar (Thuja plicata). Scales of cones oval and upright, covering pairs of seeds. Seeds two-winged; wings one-quarter inch long, elliptical, drawn in at top. One pound contains 300,000 grains. Two cotyledons only. Seed cost $2.25 per pound. Seedlings stand heavy shade. Paragraph XVIII. Actual planting of seedlings: Introductory remarks. A. The forester uses seedlings one to ten years old or, better still, one to live years old. 'I he planting expenses increase at a cubical ratio with the increasing weight of the plants. B. Seedlings are planted either with or without " hall-" of dirt. They are taken from the oursery or from the wood-. Yellow Tines over three years must be planted as "ball plants." Ball planting is always safer, as it involves a small loss of root fibre. Under any circumstances, it is wise to leave as much dirt as possible attached to the root-, preventing the roots from drying and allowing them to quickly re-establish their sucking contact with the pores of the soil. ( '. The small stemlet of young seedlings might !»• cut oil' before planting (stump plants). Advantages of planting -tump-: L In case of Locust, etc. lack of thorns. II. In case of tap rooters I Walnut. Hickory. Oak- where |i -- of root fibre is great), rapid re-establishmen1 of the equilibrium pre- vious-h existing between water-sucking power and evaporation. 60 s Y L V I C I' L T I EEJ LLL Certainty of planting the seedlings neither deeper nor higher than they were in the nursery. Conifers cannot be stump planted. If stump plants of Ash or Maple are to be used, stumps one and one-half to two inches high should be left. In the case of Oak. the stemlet should he cut off just above the point of differentiation. Stumping seems practicable in the case of Chestnut as well, and is often applied to Catalpa, Locust and Honey-Locust. Stumping objectionable on account of the rabbits eating the new shoots ,,i where weeds are rank. D. Bunch planting is often practiced where very small seedlings, cheaply raised and not transplanted in the nursery, are thereafter exposed in the woods to atmospheric hardships or to damage by ani- mals. From two to thirty such seedlings form a bunch planted into one hole. Bunch planting is applied to German Spruce and Beech, although losing favor with the foresters abroad. E. Plants may be planted irregularly or else in triangles, square-, rectangles. The advantage of an exact regular arrange- ment, which may be obtained with the help of long planting strings, bearing blue and red marks, are: I. Saving of time and expense. Each workman is kept busy by the work of his neighbor, and none can fall behind. Supervision by rangers is facilitated. [1. I he number of plants needed is easily found and the probable expense is more accurately estimated. III. Small s llings ran he found easily in high weed- or grass. IV. A plantation may be opened to pasture at an earlier date. V. A mixture of species, and. later, underplanting are more readily obtained. VI. 'the cleaning, thinning and pruning of the plantation is facilitated. VII. Possibility of cultivation between the row- in prairie- and on abandoned fields. The triangular form gives the largest number of plants acre, distributes th.' growing 9pace equally, and i- therefore -aid to raise cleaner stems. The arrangement in squares allow- for a given planting distance 1.".', less plant- per acre than the triangular system. The rectangular system, though scientifically objectionable, practically prevails over the other-. The plantlets standi] g within a row assist one another from early time- on. Planting be- tween the rows and the cultivation of -lope- are facilitated within S Y I. V I '. I I.T i i; E. rectangles. Ii i> said, however, thai the saplings form large Bide branches and retain the same for a longer period pf years. Rectangu- lar plantations are known to suffer less from Bnowbreak. K. Usually it is best to make the holes for the plants before planting— unless, on clay soil, the holes are apl to fill with water. The making of holes takes more time, in many a case, than the planting itself. It should not be clone during the few spring days favorable to tree planting. <;. The rangers should make all needful preparations for plant- ing several days or weeks before planting, securing the seedlings, "heeling them in" close to the plantation and getting the imple- ments and tmd> in proper condition. Planting distance. 1 foot 2 foot 3 foot 4 fool 5 foot 6 foot Paragraph XIX. Criteria of good seedlings. A. The lent system: The rool system should lie as compact as possible and as rich in line hair fibres as possible, qualities which are only obtained in a well-fertilized nursery. It nm-t be remembered thai the small hair fibres are the feeders of seedlings, and that the stronger roots aci merely as bones or as the skeleton giving the plant a linn anchorage in the soil. \ -linn exposure to sunlighl and to dry winds kills the root hair-. Roots cannol live in air any better than fish, though requiring oxygen like fish. Toumey claim- that "many successful planters never sel evergreens until the rout tip- show Bigns of growth." This experience is entirely at discord with the universal European experi- ence. Conifers are very sensitive againsl l"-- of rool fibres. Fresh tips, evidently, are mosl apt to he injured in handling <>r by drought. The pruning of the mm system i- a necessary evil in the case of very long tap roots. I onifers dn nol allow of it. Badly damaged roots may he clipped with a -harp knife jusl above the damaged point. No. of plants No of plants per acre in pel acre m squan s, triangles. 4:;..".tii) 50,650 10,900 12,674 4.s:,l) 5,640 ■2.ri:> 3. It38 1,750 2,034 1,210 1.4H7 SYLVICUL T U R E. B. The shaftlet: Crooks are not injurious, the plant healing them quickly. Slender plants are not desirable, partly because they sway badly in the wind, thus getting loose in the soil; partly because slender shafts are due to excessively close position in the nurseries. In the case of broad-leaved seedlings one or two years old the shaft of spindling specimens may be cut off without lasting injury (not in confers). 0. Ihe buds: The buds must have a healthy color, a large size ana a goodly number. Small buds prove the plant to be weak; so that it has a poor chance to withstand the hardships of transplant- ing. In conifers, the condition of the buds is especially telling. Poor and few buds in hardwoods render it advisable to lop the stemlets. Paragraph XX. Age, size and number of seedlings used. A. Young plants are more easily transplanted than old plants, the loss of root system being smaller. Large saplings (10 ft. high to 4 inches in diameter) are transplanted only at great expense and great risk. They must be transplanted with big balls of dirt attached. B. The number of plants used per acre in Europe varies between 1,000 and 40,000 specimens per acre in case of Pines. Spruces and Beeches. The advantage of a large number of small plants is: 1. Better chance for nature to select the fittest. II. Bess reinforcing required. III. Even unexperienced planters can he used. IV. Plant material is very cheap. V. Larger returns from first thinning and clearer boles. On the other hand, the advantage of planting stronger seedlings, especially transplants three to six years old. lies in the following points: VI. On poor soil, strong plants have a better chance. VII. Older plants have already overcome the " measles " of child- hood— fungi, insect diseases — to a large extent. VIII. Such plantations suffer less from snowbreak. IX. Tne rotation is shortened by a number of years. In a White Pine plantation made with seedlings seven years old, instead of seedlings two years old, the rotation is reduced from fifty to forty-five years: and the original cost of planting may be 27^ higher, figuring at 5% interest ; 22% higher, figuring at 4% interest ; 13% higher, figuring at 3% interest. ('. Generally speaking, Oak. Hickory and Walnut should be planted one year old on account of the large size of the tap roots. 63 S i I. \ I ( I l.T I l; i. Spruce, l-ir and Hemlock should be planted three to five years old, after previous transplanting in the nursery. Ash should be planted six years old when used in half swamps baving luxurious growth of w Is. Yellow fine musl always be planted one or two years old. unless hall plant inn i- reported to. After Tourney: For the prairies, yearlings are best in case "i ( "Hi.iiw Is, Box Elder, Sofl Maple (Soft Maple sprouts in June and is very small in fall), Russian Mulberry, Catalpa, Walnut, Black Cherry, Locus! and II y-Locust. At Biltmore, Black Cherry trans- plants three years old do very well. Locusts two years old are clipped back. Maple and Ash are transplanted and used three to four years old; Yellow Pines are used one oi two years old; White Pines two, three or four years old; Catalpa one year old, etc. Paragraph XXI. Lifting seedlings from nursery beds. It is not advisable to plow the seedlings out of the ground oi to tear them oul with tongs. In the rase of species having small reproductive power (Conifers, Beech, Birch) additional care is needed. The -pade should be used; and the plant should be lifted togethei with large clumps of dirt which, thrown on the ground, collapse and allow of safe extrication of the plants contained in the clumps. It is wise, carriage charges permitting, to allow some dirt to stick to the roots. < >n more binding soil the hollow- cylinder spade might be used for lifting small plant-. Plants should be well cov- ered with burlaps, wel moss, dirt, etc., at once after digging. Plants left for a number of days between the plantation and the nursen should be heeled in thoroughly, shinglelike, one row- covering the other, in a shady place. Paragraph XXII. Transportation of seedlings. If the roots are thoroughly protected, a voyage from Europe to Biltmore, though it may take six week- time, will no! injure the p. ants. Plants are loosely put together in bunches of one hundred to two hundred pie<e>. are placed iii baskets or open crate-, the roots ill the center, the tips at the circumference. Layers of plants alternate with layers of damp moss. S llings packed tightly, especiallv in boxes, are apt to mould. Plants merely taken to a nearbj plantation on wagons should be well covered with branches, moss or sacks, and should 1"' sprinkled during transportation. Ball plants ,|o noj need packing unit ss Kills dre eerj Iocs,., when burlaps are necessary. One liun- !red Fellow Tine ball plants, after Rankin, with halls ten inches S YLVI C U L T U R E. square, make up a tw.o-horse Load. Fifty thousand seedlings without balls and well watered, or eighty thousand seedlings slightly damp- ened, usually make a wagon load. Paragraph XXIII. Common methods of planting seedlings in the open. A. Planting in furrows. The furrows should be made deeply with a subsoil plow. The plants are distributed, at proper distance, in the furrows. Then another furrow is at once given with a turning plow, throwing the needful dirt over the plants, which are thereafter adjusted and pressed into proper site, by hand. This i> a quick method of planting, but is practical only on prairies or on abandoned fields. It involves the danger of reckless spreading of roots and of loose imbedding of the plant in loose soil. The plants are also apt to be placed too deep and to be shaken badly by wind. The method, however, yields good results in case of I. Stump planting (Oak, Locust. Catalpa). II. Planting many one-year-old seedlings (so that a large per- centage might be lost without great injury). III. Plants not sensitive to deep planting (not for White Pine and Spruce i. Plants placed too deep form a second root system close to the surface and develop a bushy bole, useless in forestry, pleasing in a garden. At Biltmore, the furrow method was used by Pinchot at the Shiloh Crossing plantation. A modification of the furrow method was used at the Pace farm in 1003. where deep furrows were drawn, the plants inserted by hand, covered by hand and adjusted by hand. A planting machine (Dr. Fernow's), resembling a tobacco planting machine, is not used. B. Planting in holes. The holes are either holes dug with the spade or clefts wedged into the soil. Most planters mulch the roots in loamy water so as to increase their weight and so as to reduce their spread before insertion into the hole. The root fibres suffer from this mulching, however, being 1. raided unnaturally. The root tips should not be bent upward. The depth and width of the hole should correspond with the actual size of the root. Several plants might be placed in the same hole to save expense. Theoretically it is best to place each plant in the center of its hole. At Biltmore, howver. planting in the lower edge of the hole is preferred because: I.- No root is hemispherlcally developed. II. Planting at the edge is the best preventive against deep planting, the planter holding the plant with the left hand at the * SYLVICU l-T I RE. jHinii of differentiation againsl the edge of the hole, when drawing with the righl hand the dirt required to till the hole. III. Such plants are firmly imbedded and are less shaken by the wind. On forest soil it is wise to place the top dirt dug from the hole around the root tips, and the bottom dirt of the hole close to the -in face. The workmen should be shown daily by the forester how to plant. It is of the utmost importance to pulverize and loosen the dirt first, and to then press and beat it tightly with fist, heel or mallet around the roots. Some planters give a trifle of forest humus into the hole; others carry fertile garden dirt in baskets to the plantations. The placing of stones on the hole (as refrigera- tors) is rec tended. One man's work at hole digging per day is 300 to 3,000 according to root-size and conditions of soil. C. The seedling musl stand, after planting: I. Firmly, the dirt being tightly packed around it- roots, so that it cannot be shaken and so thai the roots may establish their sucking conta< I s. II. Naturally, the roots having the same manner of spreading and ramifying which they had in the nursery. III. Erect and jusl as deep as it stood in the nursery (exception: barren sand). Paragraph XXIV. Special methods and tools used for planting seedlings in the open. A. Biermans spiral spade, costing $2.00, i- pointed parabolically, th' blade being 7'.. inches long and ."> inches wide When used bor- ingly, this spade forms a parabolic hole and loosens the soil. With the It't't hand the seedling i- pressed againsl the side of the hole, while the righl hand places some sod ashes (See Par. XXIX, D. VI.) iiiii liately over the fine rool fibres. Then the best part of the soil i- used to fill the near half of the hole, and the pooresl for filling tlic far half. The instrumenl is adapted to hardened soil. • in wel and binding soil, the dirt clogs in the curves of the spade. Capacitj per hand in Germany 320 plant- per day. I'.. The Planting Dagger1 i- used for Yellow Pine - llings one or two year- old, to be planted on sandy soil. The dagger is three inches longer than the longest root. It is made of wood, iron shod at the point. It make- a narrow, funnel-shaped hole, which is closed bj pressure from another hole made a few inches from the first. <>n loose, sandj soil it is wise to plant Yellow Pine seedlings deeply up to firsl needles- 3ince Yellow Tine is nol affected, in thai soil, by deep planting. Daggering i- the cheapesl possible .it; SYLVIOULT V RE. method for planting Long Leaf Pine, Jack Pine. Lodgepole Pine, etc. Capacity 800 to 900 per day and hand. )LW C. The Buttlar Iron, once much used for thrusting holes into ^ ^ the -oil, is now in disfavor since it causes the seedlings to be BV BQfc inserted into holes having walls as impenetrable as those of a ^^^^^\|l '"' flower-pot. Only plants one or two years old can be thus planted yjb% ("cleft planted"). gmP^ \| I). The Wartenberg Iron consists of a sword 18 inches long, &y\ attached to a heavy handle. Price .$2.25. Similar irons were made at Biltmore out of three-inch wagon tire, at a -mall cost. A deep cleft is made by the iron in which tap-rooted seedlings are readily inserted. On binding soil, however, or in a broomsedge field, the ttse $Cv**/^"'u* of this iron cannot be recommended. E. The planting hammer is used to make small holes for small roots. The iron part of the hammer is about five inches long. The planting hatchet, a similar make, may be used to advantage for planting one-year-old plants. The holes arc closed by heating the dirt round the holes with the back of the hammer or with the hatchet. F. Von Alemann constructed a very heavy square spade which is pushed and drawn in a particular way, like the lexer of a handcar on the railroads, so as to make the lower pari of the whole wider than the middle part, the cross-section of the whole forming an X. If Oaks are planted, an extra hole i~- made at the bottom of that made with the spade, by means of a long dagger in which the tap root of the oak i- to lie imbedded. The hole is closed by pressure from the sides. It seems doubtful whether the soil will close entirely over the roots unless it be sandy. One man can plant 580 Oaks two year- old or 1,270 Yellow Pines two years old with this instrument on ] >lo\\cd ground. G. The Planting Beack. constructed by Baith. makes and empties a triangular hole, taking out the dirt tilling the hole. Plants one or two years old are placed along the vertical side of the hide. Then the dirt kept in the beak is filled in. The instrument is 3y3 feet Ion- aim weighs 15 pounds. It is -aid to be superior to all cleft planting tools, whilst it works just as cheaply on loose soil H. Planting under sod cover, i Von Alemann). Two sod turned over, like the covers of hook-, and laid back, upside dow without loosening the " hinge " of the sods. The soil in the is deeply worked with a spade. In the middle of the hole the plant Q ^*Jt jA^ hole. Then the two sods are turned hack into their original position, &>S\A \A^Q , down, ^/3j U . i hole ^H^fuv-t/ •*** placed, with the root- spread a- much a- possible within the entire nei 67 *4 SYLVII i l.T i I; E so that the seedling stands between them. This i- a good method on ground where frosl i- in !»■ dreaded, and is used for Ash, Alder and Water Birch one to three year- old. I. Mound Planting (Manteutfel). small unds are made con- ^■S *iy\J(* sisting of rich nursery soil to !><■ carried in baskets t<> the plantations. * The plant i- placed into the mound, it- roots touching the vegetable ' /2T~* —*+*>f mould underneath. The mound is covered with sods to prevent <-£-^ J£st erosion. The method works well on very drj and hard ground, i - About 100 plants are planted per day and per man after this method. • ■*** . .*__-. Its advantages are: -«*»**^-u | II,,. y-egetable cover of the Boil, by it- disintegration, fur- / nishes food for the rootlets. II. Tin' quafitj of the -nil surrounding the roots i- very good. III. The soil in the mounds is kepi moist with condensed atmos- pheric vapor, owing to it- greater porosity. IV. The planter is nut likely in plant the seedling tun deep. 'I'lic method is also applied on very wet soil. The mounds may be replaced by ridges. Experiments have Bhown thai planting in mounds does better in years of droughl than planting in holes. Modifications of the Manteuffel method are in common use. Ordinary -nil dug oul at the planting site may be used to make the mound: or, where there are heavy sods, a sod is turned upside down and left to rot fur a year. The mound thus made i- rich in plan! food -resulting from the disintegration of runt fibres ami \ .■•_■. stable malt rr. Disadvantages of mound planting are: a. The mounds are easily washed away on slopes unless under cover of mother trees. b. The be-t -nil i- washed mil if the mound i- no! covered with sods, stones or brush. c. Insects and mice find hiding and breeding places in t! covered mounds. d. Mound planting i* very expensive. .1. Ballplanting, with diaries Tfeyer's hollow cylinder spade. The cylinder spade can be used to best advantage on binding soil. It lifts the plant (seedlings, notably conifers one oi two years old) from the nurserj withoul loss of roots and prepares fur it a hole on the ground to be planted having the exact form of the ball of dirt adhering to the roots. The method is particularly safe and seems particularly adapted for prairie planting since it protects the seedling before, during and after the aet of planting; since it prevents the seedling from loosing 6 Edward V— SYLVICULTURE. its foothold in the soil under the intluence of high wine allow- of planting at almost any season of the year. i in -tony soil, the cylinder spade cannot be used Heyer's '* cone spade " facilitates the transfer of larger seedlings with heavier balls of dirt from the nursery or from the woods to new plantations. Paragraph XXV. Season for planting seedlings. Factors influencing the season are: Local climate. Labor available. Time available. Species planted. Theoretically seedlings should be planted during the period of inactivity of roots and buds, or in mid-winter. This theoretical demand, however, in a Northern climate, cannot be carried out, the ground being frozen at that time. Hence the choice only remains between planting in late fall and planting in early spring. After Engler, roots show two periods of active growth, viz.: a spring-and- sunnner period influenced by soil moisture, and a fall period in- fluenced by soil heat. The growth of the roots during August and September, between the two periods mentioned, is very weak. In spring, the growth of the roots starts in March and April and shows the highest activity in May, June and July. A. Spring Planting. The seedlings are planted before the opening of the buds. The moisture left in the soil by the melting snow is very favorable to their growth. Objections to spring planting are: I. Scarcity of labor, unless forest planting begins at a time at which fields are too wet to be worked. II. Larch. Maple, Cherry and Birch sprout so early in spring that it is impossible to adopt spring planting in their case. III. Moist ground, hummocks and swamps are not accessible in spring. TV. The soil is not packed as tightly around the roots on the arrival ol spring as is the case in fall planting. ±J. Fall Planting. Fall planting is preferred on wet areas and in the case of early Bprouting species. The disadvantages of fall planting otherwise outweigh the benefits combined therewith. I. Seedlings planted in fall are apt to be heaved up by the winter's freeze. *9 81 I. \ ' I ( i I. i I i: E. II. The severe winds of the winter loosen the foothold of coni- fers planted in fall. III. Fall-planted seedlings are re suhject to late frost, open ing their buds some ten days earlier than spring-planted seedlings. IV. (in weedj soil, fall-planting i- handicapped by the presence of a rank growth oi weeds which has rotted down at the arrival of spring. In tlic Southern Btates, even ai Biltmore, planting in January and February is very feasible, perhaps advisable in average years. Ball plant- can be planted ai any season of the year. In countries of periodical rainfall (California, India and Porto Rico) it i- besl to plan! jusl before the beginning of the rainy season. In swamps, summer planting or early fall planting 1- a necessity. }J- ~f~ Paragraph XXVI. Cultivation of plantations. ^-LA-o-% \ Practice: The European forester never cultivate- any planta- )~J^rs^ 4 , -■* tions for the reason thai his plantations are made immediately after ' J lumbering, when the rootwork and the stumps on the ground render , ju cultivation difficult. Under the incident conditions of soil (humus: porosity), cultivation is usually not required for the success oi a plantation. Lrregular plantations cannol be cultivated. The forester afforesting -and dunes obviously objects to culti- vation. The forester afforesting swamps finds cultivation impracticable. B. Advisability: Cultivation i- advisable: Where there is neither humus nor rootwork in the ground; Where the soil, like prairie soil, i- compact and hard, lacking in aeration, porosity, capillary power, hygroscopicity ; Where competing herbaceous weed- threaten to smother -mall seedlings; Where mice or soil breeding insects prevail, which are disturbed, exposed or killed by continuous cultivation.' ( . Frequency. The forester may cultivate up to three times per annum, during one. t w more years sometimes till the leaf canopy overhead secures for the soil a solid layer of humus by dense shading. D Tools. A bull-tongue plow i- used, on rough ground, for plant rowB placed less than three t'eet apart. Cultivator- are used, a- in agriculture, where the soil i- loose, and where the rows are tar enough apart and the ground i- tree from si unip- or root- or bouldei s. 70 SYLVICULTURE. Hoes are used in exceptional cases only, where labor is cheap and where the soil does not allow of using teams and machinery. Mule- and horse- are muzzled to protect broad-leaved seedlings from being browsed. Paragraph XXVII. Prairie planting in particular. A. The prairie exhibits as marked climatic differences as the state of Georgia compared to the District of Labrador. "General prescriptions for prairie planting" are impossible. owing to these climatic diversities. B. The species used must be adapted to the quality of the soil, the intensity of summer heat, the duration of the summer, the soil moisture, the air moisture. Native tree- should be given the pref- erence in case of doubt. C. Prairie plantations are meant either for production of timber itie-. posts, etc.), or for -belter to stock, house, orchard and field. 1). specie- recommended for prairie planting are: I. For Canada: A\ bite spruce. Cottonwood, Balm of Gilead, Box-elder, Green Ash Russian Poplar; further Yellow Pine-. II. Tor Minnesota and Dakota: Cottonwoods, Soft .Maple-. Willows, Ashes, Box-elder, Tamarack in swamps, Bur Oak along rivers. III. For Nebraska and Iowa: The same species and Red Cedar, Russian Mulberry. I\~. For Kansas, Arkansas, Oklahoma and Missouri: Osage Orange, Flack Locust, Hardy Catalpa. Post Oak and White Oak. E. Naturally we should expect Xerophytic species, like Yellow Pines, to do best in the prairies, and the old stumps found buried in the ground bear testimony to their possibilities. Being evergreen the Pines protect the fanner- best from blizzards. Still, just Pines are most apt to meet with distress previous and after the act of planting. Ball planting should be tried. The European Finns mon- tana resists wind particularly well. F. ^reparation of soil: It is best to prepare the soil thoroughly by several years' field crops. Deep plowing is required (Tourney) in the fall previous to planting and in the spring of planting. G. Preparation of plants: The seedlings arriving at the farm should be removed from the package: heeled in under shade, pro- tected from winds and sprinkled if frost i- not to I e feared. Tourney 71 s \ i. \ I » l i.T i i: I.. wishes to puddle plants before heeling, and desires to plant the conifers invariably after the broad-leaved kinds. H. Planting: The planter must patiently wait for proper weather. Thorough protection of the roots during every moment of the act of planting is essential. Each individual musl be planted by itself no dozen methods! The plants should be sei closely within the rows; the soil must be packed tightly round the roots. Reversed sods or stones may be used to ballast the roots and to prevent the wind from shaking them loose. I. Cultivation: Cultivation is necessary up to the time when the trees cover the ground fully. littering it with humus. Where barefrost is dreaded, cultivation should end in late summer, Paragraph XXVIII. Methods of obtaining plants for planting. A. Frequently, seedlings are obtained from the woods nearby, a method which seems to recommend itself as cheap and natural. It is a fact, however, that the roots and the buds of wild seed- lings are badly adapted for the purpose of planting. The former are far-spreading; the buds are weak and few. In addition it is risky to take plants from the shelter of mother trees suddenly onto open ground. The use of wild seedlings over two years old is particularly unsuccessful. The failure of the timber culture act to prove efficient is largely due to the use of wild plants in prairie plantations. At Biltmore, seedlings of Yellow Poplar, Yellow Tine. Ash and Maple are often picked up with a spade and taken to the nurseries with good results. Such seedlings are taken at a very young age, without loss of dirt, to nurseries placed under lath screens. They are never removed direct 1\ to "pen plantations, with the exception of ballplants of Yellow Pine. B. Purchase of plants from commercial nurseries: During the last 15 years, a number of financially strong com- mercial nurseries have arisen abroad which, buying seed cheaply, located on suitable ground at good shipping points, enjoying many years' close acquaintance with the needs of Sylviculture, have sup- plied the various German administrations with cheap plants of a superior grade. The Biltmore Estate has often obtained plants raised by Heins Sons. Ilalstenbeek, near Hamburg, notably White Pines, which have been very successful in spite of a six weeks voyage. On il ther hand, American nurseries usuallj prepare plants only for ornamental purposes and not with a view of foster- ing the development of the tree hole. SYLVIGUL T U R E. since the rangers and the helper- in forest planting should know the sylvieultural need- of the seedlings, it is surely wise to offer them object lessons at home through self-administered nurs- eries. C. Nurseries proper, in charge of the forester. Where mice are much feared the nurseries should be sur- rounded by a deep, straight walled ditch. Fences are made of wire., lath, rails, etc., differing in material, strength, height and fineness of mesh according to the enemies locally dreaded. Proper nurseries yield the largest percentage of seedlings out of a given quantity of seeds. The seedlings raised therein have a better, more compact and more fibrous rout system than wild plants. Expensive and exacting species should always be raised in "forest gardens.'' There may be distinguished: Nurseries under tree cover. Shifting nurseries. Permanent nurseries. I. Nurseries under tree cover form the exception, being required only for the production of seedlings ot tender species; notably of Hemlock, Hard Maple. Beech. The nursery is formed by a pole- wood Heavily thinned and dug over with the spade. Here Beech- nuts are planted broadcast or in furrows and the seedlings removed when two years old, without transplanting. Hard Maple and Hem- lock should be raised as in open nurseries. It is a noteworthy fact that broad- leaved kinds often thrive best under conifers (Oak and Beech under Pine) and conifers best under broad-leafed kinds (Spruce besl under Beech. Maple. Birch). Only theoeretical explanations can be given for this truism, the best explanation being the difference of enemies attacking such species. Objections to nurseries under nee cover: a. Soil preparation is costly and insufficient. b. Plants raised cannot be planted in the open without loss. c. Nurseries under tree cover sutler badly from mice and squirrels and obtain insufficient rainfall. On the other hand, weeds and grasses are kept down by the shelter overhead. Nurseries under tree cover form the exception, not the rule. II. Shifting versus stationary nurseries. The advantages of stationary forest nurseries over shifting forest nurseries are: a. Reduced cost of tilling. b. Reduced cost of fencing. 73 b 1LVICULT I l; E. c. Reduced cosl of supen ision. On the other hand, stationary nurseries suffer from: 1. Excess of weeds. -.!. Higher cost of transportation of seeds and Beedlings. 3. Large needs of artificial fertilizing. 4. Danger from mice. insects and fungi for which such nurs- eries act as incubators. For raising ball plants, the shifting nurserj i- undoubtedly best; otherwise the selection between shifting ami permanent nurs- eries depends on local conditions; such a- the price of manure and of fencing; charges for transportation, etc. Seed plantations made on open ground arc often used a- shifting nurseries espe- cially so in the case of Yellow Pines. Paragraph XXIX. Permanent nurseries in particular. A. The size of "foresl gardens" (the German name for sta- tionary nurseries) depends upon the quantity, the age and the size of the seedlings annually needed. Further, on the presence or absence of transplanting beds, fallow beds and paths between the beds. Regular forest management has forest garden- fitted with: I. Transplanting beds, their total size being equal to trans- planting space by number of plants yearly needed by number of years which the transplants are left in such beds. II. Seed-beds, their total size being equal to one fourth oi size of transplanting beds for one age class by number of year- which the seedlings are allowed to stand unt ransplanted. III. Foot paths and roads equaling 30% of I and II. IV. Fallow beds equaling 100% of I, II, and III. ii seedlings and transplants are left for one year only in their beds; 50' II and III. if left for two years; and 33%, if left for three years. B. Form of beds. Bed- are usually four to six feel wide, separated by paths one or two feet wide, the beds preferably ele- vated over the paths by from three to twelve inches, so as to check the migration of insects, mice and nude-.: and so as to allow of better aeration of the soil. Sometimes the beds are kept in hoard frame-, an expensive though useful arrangement. C. The following factors must be considered in selecting the site of a nursery: I. Soil: A sandy loam or marl i- best for seedlings. The correct degree of looseness i- secured by mixing sawdust, spent tan, humus, ashes and weed- with the mineral soil. The soil should ha\e no 7+ S YLVICULTUR E. stones, in order to allow of proper seed planting and in order to facilitate the digging of the plant-. II. Exposure: The best expo-ure is a gentle northwest slope. The bottom of a valley js too frosty in spring. Southwest and southeast slopes are subject to rapid atmospheric- changes. Eastern aspects invite damage by frost. III. Proximity to water and possibility of irrigation. IV. Accessibility and distance from ranger's house. D. Fertilizing: Stationary forest gardens require continuous fertilizing. Crops of seedlings exhaust the soil like grain. The following table exhibits, in pounds per acre, the amounts of fertilizing matter annually consumed by Pine seedlings, Pine poles and crops of rye. Yellow pine Yellow pine Crop of Fertilising matter. one year old. eighty years old. rye. Phosphoric acid '. 9.8 lbs. 1.7 lbs. L 6.7 lbs. Potash 20.7 lbs. 2.8 lbs. 24.2 lbs. Calcium 17.2 lbs. 10.1 lbs. 9.7 lbs. Magnesia 3.0 lbs. 2.0 lbs. 4.2 lbs. Sulphuric acid 0.0 lbs. 0.3 lbs. 1.1 lbs. The following fertilizer- are used in foresl gardens: I. Animal manure, which i- considered best. Cattle manure is preferred to horse manure ; on clay soil, however, horse manure is better. Heavy weeds come up from stable manure which has not bad time to fully decompose. II. Commercial fertilizer-: Experiments conducted with super- phosphate, bone meal and so on have failed to yield conclusive results. The best kalium fertilizer seems to be kainit (kalium chloride) ; the best nitrogen fertilizer is sajt peter. After Von Schroeder, the following quantities of phosphates, potash and nitrates are needed to raise 4,000,000 plant- on an acre of nursery: 520 lbs. kainit. 60 lbs. superphosphate. 320 lbs. whale guano. III. Humus, the natural foresl manure, is the cheapest fer- tilizer obtainable in the wood-, lluinu- of Pines mixed with that of broad-leaved species is best. Humus just one year old is said to be richest in bacilli favorable to tree growth, and to be devoid of filiform fungi disastrous to plants. The weed- removed from nurseries furnish, through their de- composition, a valuable humus. SYLVICU I.Tl RE. A mixture of humus with street sweepings, kitchen refuse, loam, burnt lime, etc., is often placed in huge heaps near the nurseries. The heaps are kept in a rotation so that the heap made in 1903 is used only in 190G. The heaps are stirred up repeatedly so as to be acted upon by the air. IV. Vegetable matter other than humus. Such fertilizer may be obtained by raising, on the fallow beds, during the fallow year, cowpeas, clover, lupine (the latter on sandy soil) and other legumin- ous plants, all to be plowed under in fall. , Leguminous plants increase the nitrogen in the soil. V. Wood ashes: Excessive use of wood ashes is disastrous to sprouting plants, especially on sandy soil. Besides kalium, wood ashes contain from 5% to 20% of phosphoric salts. Wood ashes should be used, however, moderately in Yellow Pine nurseries. VI. Sod ashes are recommended where other fertilizers are too costly. Sods of grass, of weeds or of huckleberries are dried, the majority of the dirt removed and used to build a chimney and a kiln resembling a charcoal kiln, wherein layers of sod alternate with layers of brushwood, waste thinnings, etc. The kiln is covered with sods and wet dirt. Kilns burn, according to size, for from two days to two weeks. The sod ashes contain all mineral fertil- izers needed; have great hygroscopicity and are free from insects, fungi and other bearers of plant diseases. Sod ashes should be exposed to the atmosphere for a year he- fore use, and should then be well mixed with the top layer of nursery dirt. Paragraph XXX. Seed planting in seed beds. Seedbeds: Prescription for preparation: Plough and cross- plough to a depth of one foot; mix manure well with soil: heap the dirt taker, from the paths on top of the beds; remove stones. Seeds are planted either broadcast or in drills tn a depth gen- erally equaling their longest dimensions. A. Broadcast planting is always used in commercial nurseries while the sylvieulturists use it only for seeds of small germinating percentage (Birch, Elm, Beech, Alder and Yellow Poplar] or in case id' very light grained species which do not allow of any covering. Broadcast planting is permissible if seedlings are kept in the bed one year only. Economy in size of nursery and le>s weeding are the advantages of broadcast planting. With the help of a roller or, better still, of a heavy plank, the surface of the seed led i- pressed down until an even surface tj^t^fcCA* J *^~*. - IAvl^"^ ^^^T^ /J*"*} SVLVICULTIEE. is obtained. Then the seeds are planted, dirt or fertilizer or sod ashes sifted on top, and the surface of the bed again pressed down as before. To prevent the formation of a crust, a cover of moss or leaves is often given, to be removed before the time at which the cotyledons are expected to appear. Better than moss or leave- are coverings consisting of pine branches (exception: on Pine seeds). B. Planting in rills. The rills are from one-fourth to three inches wide; made with a "rill board," a plank well seasoned to which mouldings are nailed. These mouldings may either be square or triangular in their cross section-. The rills are from five to ten inches apart. Double rills are preferred, lately, in Germany. In order to economize in the use of fertilizer and in order to obtain a compact rout system, trenches are sometimes made and filled with particularly fertile soil, at a distance apart equaling that of the rills. These trenches are made with a special ••trench hoe,' triangular in shape. The seed is put in the rill with the hand, with the help of a reduplicated playing card, a bottle of seed or, better, a -tick 2"x4" grooved on one side and as Ion- a- the width of the Led. or, best of all, a banged -utter into which the seeds are tilled by " thimblefuls " or "spoonfuls.'' evenly distributed in the base of the guttei. Th. miner i- placed over the rill and opened by pie-sing the two sides together, when the seeds drop through the "slot." To insure even distribution of the seed in the gutter, small niche- mav be provided at short, equal intervals at the base of the -utter, the ice size of the cavities corresponding with the quantity of seeds to be planted in each rill. Advantages of rill planting: I. Economy in seed. II. Stronger plants of more compact form grown at proper interval- apart. III. Economy in manure. TV. Seeds put at proper depth. V. The foot of plantlet can lie easily covered with moss leaves. VT. Weeding is made easy. I nless very experienced help can be had. rill-planting i- cer- tainly preferable. Undoubtedly, however, insects, mice and moles following the rill- do greater damage than in broadcast planting. The quantity of seed per square foot of seed bed depend- on the number of seeds in a pound: the germinating percentage; the quality of -oil: the number of years which the seedling i- meant f SYLVII i I - 11 i; E. f to stay in tin beds; rapidity of growth. <»;ik -' < oi a quart; B li and Chestnut, 4',; of a quarts Locust, Ash, Maple, Elm, Birch, .in grains; Alders, 4."> grains; Fir, 160 grains; yellow Pine, 15 grains; Spruce, 20 grains; Tamarack, 30 grains; avoirdupois — all per square foot. The figures given are illustrations, no! prescriptions. Eeavy seeds (nuts) are usually dibbled in, with a "dibhling board." Paragraph XXXI. Transplanting in transplanting beds. '|-nnMl!imii1'£j_>J^ It jnii-1 1 u- done at a time \\ li«-n fore-tal labor is anyhojv_J[uJi^^cu|Heil. Transplanting i-. there- fore, resorted to onlj .\. In case of very expensive seeds or seedlings. 1!. In case of very slow growing seedlings. ('. In case of plants exposed in the open to severe (drought, frost, game, mice, insects, weeds). To amid transplanting, the following alternatives ai I . 'ljjo offspring of very cheap -*w\tls (Gorman iSpruce ) weaklings or indi\ idual- -tandine. ■ rowdedlv bein qui bj hand, or being, cu_t_out_ l>v II. ".Hoot pJuninu " is adopted fgled out. dangers ■e used: i- •• sin- ompact root roots J^y___rnt_^ng_^)fl'. will long .tap roots Tin' transplanting distance i-. at leasts three by six inches and i- governed by rapidity of growth expected and by the number of years which the transplant is to he left in the transplanting bed. Transplants are sel in clefts in the transplanting lied made witli the help of a transplanting dagger, or are placed into trenches made with a hoe or -pade. Planting hoards may I..' used, along which the seedlings, whilst pressed into equidistant slight grooves, are beld in proper posi- tion by a string tightly spanned. Tran-plant- an- often left for one year only hi the trans- planting bed, although the acl of transplanting weaken- the plant temporarily, thus cheeking the first year's growth in the trans- planting I ied. Conifers should not lie transplanted more than once. Hardwoods are rarely transplanted more than once, exceptin Ash, saplings of which are used for planting hummocks. Paragraph XXXII. A. Protect ion eh th covers, drain Protection of nurseries. nursery plant- against to, es, cornstalks Lrought : Lath covers, ring of slabs, laths, etc.; SYLVICULTURE. cultivating rows of plants; watering which must be continued if once begun. B. Protection of nursery plants against frost: Same measures as in "A" inclusive of watering: smoking lives: prosing seedlings lifted by frost back into the bed; no weeding from September <>n. ('. Protection against excessive rain (which washes the plants out, or splashes them with mud-pant-, or incrusts the surface): Top dressing of leaves, moss or Pine branches; "combing" mud- pants off the seedlings; lath or brush covers. Paragraph XXXIII. Nursing in nurseries. A. Weeding: Weeding is facilitated in nurseries by a regular arrangement of the plants and by narrow beds. Tools are: knife, fork, hoe or special weeding wheels. Wee. lino- should be stopped a month before frost comes in. The purpose of weeding is not onlv the removal of competitors; it is also aeration of the -oil. Weeding can he dispensed with in dense, broadcast seed beds: in thinly stocked beds planted broadcast it i- mosl oecessary and most difficult. B. Cultivation: Cultivation in the transplanting beds of com- mercial nurseries (Beadle ;it Biltmore) i- done by cultivators drawn by a horse. Cultivation in foresl nurseries proper purports to break the crust forming under the influence of heavy rain fall. Usually the act of weeding cultivates the so'il a- well. Cultiva- tion is most easily effected by drawing some strong nails driven into a stick along each rill. This cultivation, at the same time, disturbs and scare- away mice, voles and insect-. ( I. Carpeting the intervals between rill- or rows: Reversed mo--, spent tan, sawdust, straw, hay. twigs (always of another species), poles i never fresh cut pine ii.de-. which are incubators to snout beetles) ate often laid between the rills or row- so a- to preserve moisture, to prevent mud-pants from forming on the stemlets and to check weed-. These carpets, however, har- bor mice and insects. Large leaves in the carpet threaten to smother young seedlings if blown upon them. D. Trimming. The top shoot when killed by early frost or drought might he cut oil'. In no other case must it be touched. The side branches of broad-leafed species and of winterbald coni- fers might be clipped before or after planting and transplanting so a- to reestablish the previous equilibrium existing between water sucking power of the roots now checked by transplanting and water evaporation from the crownlets left unchecked by planting. Species having a heavy central pith column should not be trimmed too 70 bYLVIC I I. J l i; E. close to tlu- stemlet (Ash, Catalpa, Maple). Ash and Catalpa are apt tn Form forks which may be prevented by timely trimming. Large broad-leaved plants planted in furrows often die, when shaken loose by winds. They may be saved it' cut to the ground previous to June 15th. Paragraph XXXIV. Special nursery methods proclaimed by re- "■•*. nowned sylviculturists. A. Biermans' method. Peel the soil cover of an area four times the size of the seed bed and burn the sods thus gotten into sod ashes. Leave them over winter. In Bpring, mix one-half of the sod ashes with the stirred up top dirt of the intended seed bed. Spread the other one-half pure on top of the bed. Smooth the surface of the bed and press it with a board. Spread seeds broadcast as close together a- pos- sible, so thai the soil i- hardly visible between the grains. Covei seeds with sod ashes sifted on top, and press the cover down with a Imaiil. Transplant the young germs in June. Shorten the taproot n! Oaks by cutting with a sharp knife. Oak nurseries should lie underlaid with impenetrable soil. Yellow Pine and Larch should he used in the open when one year old: all other species two to three years old. This method yields very well incited seedlings. The use of sod ashes i-. perhaps nut an essentia] feature of the method; fer- tilizer nr manure might he taken instead. The striking point i- tlie transplanting of germs in June. ]'.. Von Buttlar method: Von Buttlar wants to raise long roots, nut compact roots, fur use in sandy soil. The nursery i- worked to a depth of three feet, the bottom soil being brought to the sur- face. Larch. Fir and Elm seed are planted broadcast: all other species in rills. No transplanting. All species are used one or two year- old. C. Manteuffel method. The plants required by Manteuffel musl bave short, flat roots. Consequently, the best -oil in the nursery shimld he the tup -nil. and the ground underneath should not he worked tu any depth. Remove by | ling the top layer of the soil, and heat the dirt out of the peeled -ml- onto the - 1 beds. Mix it with the dirt id" the underground in fall, hi spring, hum the sods and other vegetable matter at hand on the l>ed-. mixing tlie wood ashes thus (ihtained with tin- Eop soil Spruce -hall not he transplanted and i- tn be used when Ewo years old. Fir and all broad-leafed species must be i ransplanted. an SYLVICULTURE. • Paragraph XXXV. Raising and planting hardwood seedlings on open ground. Beech: Usual age of plants fit for use, two to five years. Transplants rarely used. Ball plants very successful. Bunch plant- ** ing best, especially for underplanting. Do not cut stemlet to the ground and avoid pruning. Planting in open hardly successful. Beech best for underplanting. Almost light demander on poor soil. Beech is exacting (good soil and moisture). Instruments used hoe, spiral spade, cleft irons. Black Locust: Seeds should be planted two to two and one-half inches deep, an exception from the rule considering the small size of the seed. Drills eight inches apart. Germinating percentage of seeds very high. Seedlings are tit for planting when one year old. Usually, however, they are left in the seed bed for two years, and are then planted directly in the open. The planting of stumps and fall planting are strongly recommended. Plantations handicapped by twigboring moth (Ecdytolopha species) and by voles. Locusi grown in the open is inferior to forest grown Locust. Linden: Is usually planted in the open as a transplant three to four years old, or as a hall plant two to three years old. Spring planting. Good -oil required. Pruning of branches a necessity. Plantations in Biltmore mad.' in '98 cm splendid soil, but without cover overhead, were -low to develop. Oak-: The nursery treatment differs greatly according to local like- and forestry authorities relied upon. The treatment of the tap tout i< a continuous point of dispute. Manteuffel cuts the tap coot one am! one-half inches below ground (just as the voles did in Biltmore nurseries). Butt la r ties a knot into the root. Alemann forbids any crippling of the tap root, making an extra cleft in the planting hole to receive the tap root. Levret prevents the development of a tap root by placing the acorns on small macadam. covering them with one inch of dirt. The ground underneath the macadam must be hard. Large areas of Oak planted in Northern Germany with the tap root cut off prove the success of Manteuffel's method. The hollow borer cannot be used. Trimming of branches is all right. Roots should be pruned, after Fiirst. with a sharp spade at six inches below ground in the second spring. Spring planting is best. Some planters remove the first germ of the acorn (" offgerming ") with « view to stopping the development of the tap root — very costly. Stump plants do very well, especially in the coppice woods. Usually 81 SYLVICUL T U R E. seedlings one and two years old arc planted. The use of saplings, transplanted repeatedly, is not advisable. Cleft planting of seed- lings on broomsedge fields at Biltmore proves unsuccessful; the weeds choking and the rabbits eating the seedlings. Cleft planting fn cut over woodlands, however, on fairly loose soil is a method to be strongly endorsed. In France the clefts are made inclined, not vertical; saplings 20 years old do not show any crooks due to the method. Planting of seedlings or of young transplants in spade holes, in furrows or in clefts made between the lid and the pit formed by reversed sods prove successful at Biltmore. Young plants are not subject to lifting by frost nor do they suffer from drought. The nursery should not be worked deeper than one foot while the success of the final plantation largely depends on looseness of ground at a greater depth. Generally Red Oak is more vigorous in early youth than White Oak. At Biltmore, Chestnut Oak is the best species for abandoned fields. Chestnut: Soil well worked to a depth of sixteen inches, kalium a necessity, lime disastrous. Seedling planting (plants one or two years old) forms the rule; planting of stumps is also good. Since Chestnut is very sensitive under changed conditions of growth, ball planting is probably the best method. Seeds are kept in the burrs over winter, or in layers alternating with layers of dry sand. Immediate fall planting, however, is best. Nuts are planted in drills two inches deep two. inches apart, the drills six to twelve inches apart. At Biltmore planting of seedlings has met with continuous failure. Planting under cover or under an usher growth is probably advisable. Chestnut is exacting, needing atmos- pheric as well as soil moisture. Tree Alder: It is usually planted as a transplanl three to five years old. Yearlings are too small; seedlings two years old can be ball planted. Trimming allowed. Seeds planted broadcast on the beds, one- fourth inch of dirt <>n too/' Sprinkling necessary. No protection against atmosphere needetl. < >n swampj ground, fall planting of transplants is best. Birch: Seeds very poor; those of Black Birch mature in sum- mer. Seed- mii-t be covered very slightly <>r. better perhaps, must be beaten with a shovel into the nursery soil after broadcasting. Formation of crust over seeds is besl prevented by a cover of Pine branches. Under lath screens, sterna are apj to damp off in .June. Seedlings are planted either as two year <dds. with or without balls, or as transplanfecl stumps three to five years old. . SYLVICUL T U K E. birch is sensitive to deep planting; is not affected by heat, frost or drought. Ash: The easiest species among hardwoods to raise, plant and transplant. Planted as a seedling one year old or transplanted up to three times. Plants as old as eight years can be planted suc- cessfully without balls. Seed is placed in rills seven to twelve inches apart. Where soil is very weedy, large and strong trans- +J plants must be used. Planting in holes, on mounds or in furrows. The cleft spade is also permissible in planting yearlings Trimming is not advisable, except to prevent formation of forks. Transplant- ing of germs, in June, is quite successful. Elm: Seeds to be planted in summer (excepting Slippery Elms), just after ripening, in rich nurseries, and to receive very light cover of sand. Seed beds must be sprinkled, and the forma- tion of a crust must be prevented. Seedlings cannot penetrate a layer of one-half an inch of dirt. Usually, transplants three to five years old are used. Fall planting is preferred. Elms stand trimming easily. Maple: Drills three-fourth inches deep, one inch wide, twelve ^>t£+* inches apart. Transplanting takes place when seedlings are one or two years old. Seedlings grow rapidly. Fall planting is pre- ferable. Planting in large holes is best, since Maple cannot form a compact root system. Sugar Maple planted at Biltmore on abandoned fields four years old did very well on North Slopes, in pure stands as well as mixed with White Tine. Maple is easily transplanted, and even yearlings or two year olds might be planted in the open on good soil. In swamps, Red and Soft Maple are preferable. Sugar Maple requires well drained soil. Yellow Poplar: Very poor seeds, hence broadcast planting. Cov- ering with spent sawdust, instead of dirt, seems advisable. Seed- lings transplanted either as germs in first summer or when one year old. Very rapid growth in first and second year. Easily transplanted in holes on suitable soil. Seedlings can be taken in June and July from wood roads to the nurseries, with balls of dirt. Abandoned fields at Biltmore, planted with four year olds did poorly except in northern depressions, strong soil needed. ** Compact soil not unfavorable. Catalpa: The favorite Kansas prairie tree. Very high germinat- ing percentage. Very fast growth in first year. Rills one inch by one inch by twelve inches. Seedling plants one year old are strong enough for planting. Stump plants are preferable. At 83 SYLVII i i. i i i: I. Biltmore the top -1 1 is often killed bj frost; il should certainly be 'Hi off after planting. ( atalparc()iiiiju^ yvlieat. s<;il in -order to ii'iin proper hole, and dot's 1 1 ■ . 1 answer in a cold climate Spring planting in holes or furrows. Walnuts: The planting of seedlings is onlj permissible where mice, squirrels and hogs arc sure to gel the outs. Ver\ ling taps tnake planting difficult. Best soil needed. Small seedlings are choked mil by weeds. Plants one to three years old to be used. Avoid pure plantations! Cover in the nurseries three inche lis Mine apart lour to ten inches. Eickory: To be treated like Walnuts; during the first years, the stems remain very minute while a large tap root forms. Voles follow along the rows of plants and cul off the roots at a i>;«int about one inch below ground. Loose, porous soil is needed. Cherry: Planted in rills one-half inch deep and eight inches apart. Transplants two or three years old, transplanted when one year old are best for use in the open. Protection from rabbits peeling the stumps is required. Rapid growth in nurseries. Twig tips arc usually killed by the first frost since the twigs -row during the whole summer and fall. Pruning required. Black Chern doc-- weii on abandoned fields mixed with White Pine, Pine, Ash, Maple. Sassafras: Planting of seed in nurseries at Biltmore has been an entire failure. The seeds lived through the first summer but did not begin to sprout. Deep cover required, since cotyledons are kept under-round. The removal of the flesh enwrapping the Beed (by malting, etc.), seems required before planting. Paragraph XXXVI. Raising and planting softwood seedlings on open ground. Yellow Pines: Seeds arc covered two-fifths to three-fifths inches deep. Nursery soil to be pressed thoroughly before and alter seed planting. Planting of yearlings (from 5,000 to 10,000 per acre) forms the rule. The roots of such yearlings arc ten inche- long. (in sandy soil, cleft planting is universal (with planting dagger). On binding soil, ball plants one or two years old are best. Recently some foresters began to use transplants two years old which more readily overcome the infantile diseases. No mound nor lmnch planting. < >n verj sandy soil Yellow Pines are planted deeper (up to first needles) than they stood in the nursery. A plantation ten years old should densh cover the ground. 84 * V* SYLVICULTURE. •lack Pine (Pinus divaricata) does very well on the poorest i sand. It is, however, handicapped by deer; very rapid growth. V Pinus rigida crawls on the ground during the first and second year, J putting up a strong stem thereafter. Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine) y is the cheapest that can be planted and the most successful species ^ at Axton. At Biltmore it does exceedingly well on dry south slopes. - _7 % White Pine: Quite different from Yellow Pine is the ease with rT^ v which it is transplanted. Seedlings one_veaijjdd^_are very smalb/' V and apt to suffer from leaves smothering them. Seedlings two years 7 old have" been planted at Hi It mure on abandoned fields (in holes) 3 yery~ successfully! Transplants "three ^ and^imrF~years old are usually a used. Owing to its greater shade bearing qualities White Pine may J be used also for temporary underplanting. Seedlings -utl'er badly - from fungi. White Pine is subject to damage from too-deep plant. - ^ bag. At Axton, the best and strongest individuals form a second ^ summer -1 t. the buds of which are killed by early frost, so that J no top shoot grows in the ensuing year. At Biltmore, the second -A- — ". * shoot seems tu be safe from frost. " ' '~ " yaM^t**** Relative To "other YVlnte Pines (llexilis. monticola, albicaulis, f \ Jambertiana, aristata) no information is available. Spruce: Nursery rills one inch wide, live inches apart. Trans- planting distance usually four by six inehe--. Slow growth at first. Smallest size that may be used are seedlings two years old. Ball planting best, bunch planting frequent in mountains. Trans- plants three to five years old are preferable. Plant in holes, never 4ff clefts. Very sensitive to deep planting. Spring planting forms the rule except in high mountains. High atmospheric moisture is a prerequisite for Spruce, pp not trim. Number of plants per acre from 1,500 transplants to 10,000 seedlings. Picea excelsa might replace P. rubens (the former being cheaper), if the resistance to snow-breaks shown by rubens were equalled by excelsa. Planta- tions twelve years old should fully cover the ground. ___ Firs: Seed should be planted in fall. Pvills close, say four inches: cover, one half inch. .Early growth very slow; lath screens very essential, owing to sensitiveness of youngsters to heat and cold. Transplants five years old are best. Planting on open ground is dangerous: underplanting is very advisable. Species most planted are Abies pectinata, balsamea, concolor. Larch or Tamarack : The Western. European and Japanese Larch are scattering species, doing badly in pure stands. Growth in early youth is rapid. Seedlings two years old and transplants^^" three years old are preferred for forest planting. The distance of/^-t- % SYLVICULTURE. the rills, and the transplanting distance must be comparatively wide. S Llings mighl be clefl planted; but 1 1 < > 1 c planting forms the rule. Fall planting necessary. Larch permits of heavy trimming. Mulch seeds for one week before planting. European Larch does ■well at Biltmore and in the Adirondacks. Eemlock: Grows very slowly in youth. Seedbeds require heavy sheltering (under cloth screens). Transplant the two year olds, and plant the five year olds under cover in the woods. Douglas Fir: Seeds are still expensive; hence transplants four years old are usual, though seedlings two years old are certain ot success. Hot-house treatment of seeds secures early and simultane- ous sprouting. Plant seedlings in open ground, not under cover. Plantations made near London, England, lose the long top shoots by sea winds: at Axton, they suffer from frost; at Biltmore, the growth is strikingly poor, possibly due to the deficiency in atmos- pheric humidity. Plants 14 years old are hardly chest high: plants 11 years old only knee high. In all cases the Washington variety i- used. Varietas glauca, of Colorado, forms one summer shoot only. grows slowly, and is said to be more hardy. Red Cedar: Juniperus virginiana : Seeds lies always dormant for one summer. Seedlings two years old are ready for planting. High lath screens in nurseries advisable (Green). Very -low growth. Shade bearing. Lawson's Cypress: Majids intense shade, resists frosts, suffers from fungi; is well adapted to nnd^plantnig. Paragraph XXXVII. Results of planting experiments with Amer- ican hardwoods. For many years, the governmental forestry bureaus of the Ger- man Empire have been examining into the merits of some Leading American tree species. Locust and White Pine have been planted so extensively that they arc considered to be "naturalized forest citizens." In ;i cumber of instances, the European view- tail to tally with the results of American investigations made with reference to the sylvics of our leading species. A. Fraxinus americana: requirements a- in excelsa; stands in- undation better even long one- : Germination in firsl spring; no overlying. Plant Beeds in fall, or else in early Bpring after three days soak- ing. One ynr old, one foot high. 86 a: mild, fresh soil required, and long warm old, stron g tap-roots over one foot long; root -root tip. - old, the tap-ioot is over two and one-quarter 5 years old, ."> feet. 10 years old. 13 feet. 20 years old, 35 feet. SYLVICULTURE. Use transplants two or three years old. Root is a tap-root with many side r Mayr does not advocate its propagation anywhere in Germany. B. Catalpa speeiosa: suffers badly from short summers, often freezing down to ground. Hence frequently spreading growth. Seeds of high germinating percentage. Use either seedlings or transplants two years old. Light demanding, but fond of side shade. Mice peel at point of differentiation: all game are fond of Catalpa. C. Juglans nigra : summers. When one year fibres at end of tap- When two year; feet long. Height growth: Decidedly light demanding: fond of side shade in early youth. Yellow Pine shelter wood i< very good: More shade prevents lignification. In close stands, it is free from branches. Xuts sprouting late (being dried out) cause shoots to be killed by early frost: Hence pregermination advisable. Frost hard in sapling stage. Xo game or mice enemies. Plant nuts or yearlings on well-plowed ground, and cultivate. Plant close together, so as to avoid branchiness. Prune lignified branches only, owing to heavy pith column. D. Prunus serotina: Modest, provided soil is moist. Light demanding, but does well under slight Pine cover. Roots many tapped, strong. Height growth better than that of any European hardwood, save Ash. ^^ 5 years old. C feet high. k \1/A 10 years old, 13 feet high. Jr J^^^ 15 years old, 22 feet high. fi/^ Proof against all effects of frost! \\4tm Rabbits cut and peel (also mice) young plants. Seed-beds: plant in fall, to avoid lying over, or else soak in water for three days previous to planting in spring. SI LVI< I LTUB K. I se transplants three years old; planl close, to avoid >ide branches. E. Ace]- saccharum: Fresh, sandj loam, or fresh Band; forming stool-shoots on dry soil, and no stem. Growth quick; lighl demanding; strong root -ystem. Forms forks frequently 15 feet ahove ground. Height 35 feet, when 20 years old. Most t'nist bard of anj Maple species. Game and rabbits despise it. Seeds mature in June, and can be planted at once, but are just as well preserved and planted in spring. Use seedlings two years old, or transplants, four years old. F. Acer neguhdo: Requires strong soil; does not do on dry soil. Growth very quick to start with— up to G feel in - years, in 20 years 50 feet. Development of low, branchy crown. Light demanding, frost proof. Use seedlings one year old. Damaged by game and rabbits. \S'\i>fa. /ir Acer >aeeliarinum: Requires strong soil; not clay. Growth slower than in other Maples, up to fifth year. 20 years old 35 feet high. Apt to form forks. • p_ Sensitive agajpqj^jpfflj and drought : requires shade; does best when used for underplanting. Use transplanted small saplings. Never plant on open ground!!! Mayr recommends it only for sugar orchards — not for timber production. II. Betula lenta: Avoids wet frost dells and poor dry soil; forms tap-root on sand and flat-root mi clay. Height in 5 years 5 feet; in 20 years 36 feet. Growth bushy to start with, but soon straight, elect and free from branches. Decidedly light demanding, bul fond of side shade. No more frost -proof than Beech. Late and early frost damages it, especially on wet clay. Game, rabbits and mice are very dangerous. Seed-bed should not be dug over. Peel off the top cover of grass and weeds on humose sand: hoe the soil and then use roller. Plant broadcast, one pound for two Bquare poles; v^wy by sifting one- SYLVICULTURE. twenty-fifth inch of sand on the seeds and roll again with roller; keep Pine branches on the seed-bed until alter germination. Use tall transplants for planting in the open, owing to annual dangers. Red Birch is said to do well planted with Pine on abandoned fields, further united with natural regeneration of Beech. I. Hicoria ovata: All Hickories require strong, deep, fresh, soil. Not on clay. Pignut is satisfied With more sand. Mockernut is satisfied with more clay. Butternut requires water, more than the others, and stands inundation. All Hickories require hoi summers but stand severe winters; hence continental climate is preferable to sea climate. Tap-rooi of yearling one foot long; of two year old plant one and three-quarter feet; hence transplanting after two years very difficult. Height growth begins to set in from sixtli year, and i- good then. Age ."> years, average height 2.4 feet. Age 10 years, average height 7 feet. Age 15 years, average height 13 feet. Age, 20 years, average height 20 feet. Buds open late but shoot is quickly made. Nuts germinate slowly; hence malting or better repeated sprink- ling with liquid manure advisable: many nuts lie over, even for two years. Nuts thoroughly dried lose germinating power. Malting or " pregermination " advisable. In the case of Hickory and Walnut, the following recipe for pregermination is given: "Make a ditch three feel deep and wide: put nuts in the ditch to a depth of one foot: fill ditch with water up to top of nuts; then add a slight cover of straw; then dirt: then horse manure. •'In this ditch the nuts are kept until planting time, when the nuts will germinate a few weeks after planting (in May)." Plant seedlings one or two years old, or else nuts, on plowed ground. Cultivating advisable. Late frost is avoided by the late formation of shoots. Early frosts are bad, if seedlings did not have time to lignify owing to late germination. Avoid planting on open ground: shade is born readily for a number of years!! Straggling plantations often develop after natural or artificial reinforcing with other species. SI LVIUULTURE. Young plants Buffer from mice. Damaged seedlings Bhould be coppiced down. J. Hicoria minima-: Height growth quicker to begin with than in Shagbark. At 20 years, however, Shagbark catches up. Wood much poorer than in Shagbark (more brittle). K. Hicoria glabra: Like Shagbark; more modest as to soil; more sensitive as to frost (?). L. Hicoria alba: .Mure sensitive than Shagbark; same rate of growth: does well in the Westerwald, badly in river valleys. Paragraph XXXVIII. Results of planting experiments with Amer- ican softwoods. A. Pinus divaricata: Very modest: Stands frost and drought and does not shed needles. Root system tap-rooted, many fibred. Height growth very rapid, several shoots per summer. Better than Scotch Pine. 2 years old, 8 inches high. S years old, 5 feet high. 8 years old, 10 feet high. (lame and hares handicap it, still there is strong reproductive power. Seed one-half pound per square pole; seed has 60% germina- tion; cones fertile from sixth year on. Use yearlings or transplants two to three years old for the very poorest soil. B. Pinus ponderosa: Fails absolutely in (.ermanv. probably wing to insufficient summer heat. C. Pinus rigida: Very modest; does well in salty swamps; Buffers badly from snow-pressure. When 5 years old, 7 feet high. When 2H years old, 32 feet high. Growth is very rapid, but from 12 years on P. sylvestris catches up and then keeps ahead. Diameter growth better than in sylvestris, too. Strong reproductive power after insects, game, fire. Very lighl demanding, Cones seed-bearing from twelfth year on. More proof against late frost, more sensitive for early frost than sylvestris. Less shedding of needles; more danger from game. Use yearlings, or transplants two years old. 90 SYLVICLLTU JL^f sis: Requires moist soil and moist air. JL^*^( t ts as in P. excelsa. ^&l^t^lf Jt\ D. Picea engelmanni/ likes strong hut not wet soil — it is winter frost hard ; but suffers slightly from late frosts. Hoot system deep, many fibred; not flat. Dislikes top shade. Yearling only one to two inches high; two years old four inches high; five years old one foot high. Height growth always slow, hence easily outgrown, and pure stands required. Use transplants, five years old. E. Picea parravana: Very frost proof, more so than any other •Stands wet soil; not exacting. No top shade. Root system compact, fine fibred. Slow early growth, as in Engelmann's Spruce. Plantations 10 years old average one and three-quarter feet only in height. Animal proof. F. Picea sitchensis: Heat requirements Soil requirements less than in P. excelsa, growing both on sand and on clay. Not in stagnating moisture, but stands inundation well. Does well on seashore and on high altitudes. Height growth at first very slow; from fifth year on better than in excelsa. Short branches, slowly dropped; close stand required, fond of forking. No head shade! Side shade welcome but not required. Frost and drought only dangerous during first and second year. Game does not bother it. Seed-beds of mild, rich soil to strengthen weak seedlings. Use strong transplants, five years old. G. Abies amabilis: Plants live years old are still very sensitive against direct insolation and subject to late frosts. Rate of growth as in A. pectinata. H. Abies concolor: Spring shoots formed late; resists jfrost and any other climatic attacks well! Not exacting as to soil, doing well on Scotch Pine soil of second quality, provided that it be fresh. ^ttfU~ JLpjL^*2*j^ £ Tap-root formed in second year. Height groAvth in early youth better than in any other lir: plants eight years old have average height of three feet. 01 s \ LVICI I.T i R I-.. • in good soil even Spruce i- outgrown by it. ^ i '■ "•'■<• i*w- rrnv- n3£U' Seedlings two years old are lit for planting. Sensitive against being planted tod deep. Seed-bed treatment as in A. pectinata. I. Allies grandis: Treatment as in pectinata, which it exceeds in height growth. Soil requirements are the same. ■ I. Abies nobilis: Frost firm in winter, even unprotected. Late spring shoots help it to escape late frosts. stands dry soil] from fifth year on, more light demanding. Forms strong tap-root, and sometimes several branch whirls per annum. Plantation seven years old is three and one-half feet high. l'lant seedlings two years old, or transplants four years old. i\. Pseudotsuga taxifolia: Suitable to any climate, fros^ proof. Soil should not be poorer than third-class Tine soil; no dunes; no swamps. Root tap-root on loose soil, flat on shallow soil or binding soil, showing great adaptibility. Height growth marvelous! Age 5 years height 1.7 feet. Age 10 years height 12 feet. Age 15 years height 29 feet. Age 20 years height 45 feet. Age 23 years height 53 feet. Diameter. 23 year- old, from three inches to ten inches, average sever, inches; number of trees per acre 350. Close stand required to clear from branches. Light and heat demands as in Picea excelsa. Snow and sleet throw it over, or break top -hoot, the latter h>-s being quickly replaced by side shout taking lead. Game is a very bad enemy. Use transplants three to four years old. L. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana: Does splendidly in Germany especially in the Eifel Mountains at 1,500 feel elevation. Lro-t-proofj but sensitive in drought. l.xaeting like Beech, fond~~oF limestone. Flat-rooted: sutler- from -now. Shad" bearing in early youth: fond of half shade later on; always fond of side -hade. Slow in clearing itself from side branches; forms very close stands. 92 S V L VIOULTUE E. Very slow growth to start with; one year one inch high; two years four inches high; ten years eight inches high. Plant seed-beds broadcast. Cover completely. Use transplants four to five years old. Sensitive for too deep planting. Game are very bad: wood mice peel the stump, or cut the roots. Less sensitive in late frost because late sprouting; more so in winter frost. M. Tuniperus virginiana: Avoid poor or wet soil. Seeds lie over, always; seedlings one to two years old are very small and tender. Side shade always liked. Suffering from weeds and grass. Eed deer and Roe deer bite and beat it. Seeds kept in ditches over summer are planted in fall. Use yearlings and hole planting. N. Thuja plicata: Desires good, fresh soil. Xo swampiness! No dryness! Top shade or side shade i< well liked: do not plant in open ground. Deep root system. Height, growth slow to begin with, rapid from seventh year on: Age 1 year; height 1 inch. Age 5 years; height 4v, feet. Age 10 years; height 8 feet. Age 15 years; height 15 feet. Age 20 years; height 23 feet. Slow cleaning of bole; very dense thickets required. Seed bearing from fifteenth year on. Sensitive for frosts and drought during first year-. Game does not attack it: mice destroy young seedlings. Seeds are planted broadcast; slightly covered with dirt; shel- tered by lath screens. Strong seedlings three years old (not transplants) are used since the toot system is comparatively small, whilst the stem system is comparatively large 0. Tsuga heterophy 11a : Requires strong soil; demands side shade, but hates top shade. Cannot stand open situations. Root is, a strong tap-root. Height growth good from third year on. Top-shoot-tips are frequently killed by first frost, without any apparent permanent damage! Use seedlings three years old, raised by broadcast sowing. Shelter seed-beds well! Sjgjrsjtjye against deep planting. Mayr prefers heterophylla to canadensis for planting in Ger- many. 9Z J SYLVICULTURE. Paragraph XXXIX. Difficulties of natural seed regeneration. American foresters frequently make the statement that the axe is the best sylviculture! tool inasmuch as its proper use secures a good regeneration free of charge. This statement is misleading. It is true that the density of the stand of the second growth obtain- able from natural regeneration is frequently better than that obtained from artificial planting. On the other hand, such a stand can only be obtained under favorable conditions and at a great increase of logging expenses. While the cash expense of natural reseeding might be slight, the actual expense consisting in lessened receipts frequently exceeds the expenses of artificial planting. In i lie primeval w Is additional difficulties of seed regeneration lie in the following points: A. ' iveraged trees have jioor seeds. B. Interference with the leaf canopy overhead at once invites danger from fire, increased by the debris on the ground, and by the impossibility of battling against fires in the underbrush. C. In the primeval forest, the age classes are usually mixed in an irregular manner; hence uniform measures for reproduction are out of the question. The forester cannot generalize; lie must individualize — a very expensive procedure in the face of low stump- age values. D. The virgin forest usually contains a mixture of species; the best ones only are removable; the weeds and worthless species are left on the ground; and from this fact arise additional difficulties to propagate the most valuable kinds. To this must be added the difficulty of properly gauging light and shade according to the individualities of the species mixed. E. In America the lack of a permanent system of transporta- tion necessitates the operations to extend at one stroke over large areas, whilst natural seed regeneration requires the gradual removal of mother trees, in imitation of nature's own way of proceeding, on small and restricted areas only. As a matter of fact, the lack of permanent means of transporta- tion in primeval woods is the mosi serious obstacle to regeneration from self-sown seed conscious of its aim and its effect. F. Natural seed regeneration requires cutting, according to the i jcurrence of seed years and according to the development and requirements of young growth. Hence the axe must be inde- pendent from the fluctuations of market or mill requirements, an impossibility in the United state- at the presenl time. 04 \ SYLVICULTURE. The term " natural seed regeneration " does not preclude arti- ficial help to increase the chances of regeneration. The term merely implies " seeding," or scattering of seed, in the main unaided by man. Man, however, may carefully prepare the seed-bed, by plowing or hoeing or digging, or may carefully press the seeds naturally fallen into contact with the soil; and may protect the seed and the seedlings, at great pains, against external dangers. Little help is given, where soil and stumpage are, and promise to remain, of small value. Under the reversed conditions, the expense incurred for natural regeneration often exceeds that required for artificial regeneration. In innumerable cases, natural and artificial regeneration are locally and irregularly combined. It might be asserted, that the forest has secured its own regeneration through many millenia, and that it will continue to do so unaided by human activity. Why then, it might be asked, is it necessary or advisable to now offer costly assistance in order to secure natural reseeding of and in a lumbered tract of woodland? There cannot be any doubt that nature, barring bad conflagra- tions or heavy pasturage, will start and develop after lumbering some kind of a second growth of forest. As a matter of fact, it is usually at hand, previous to lumbering, in an embryonic or incom- plete state waiting for the chance to shoot ahead after the removal of the older trees. This ready nucleus, however, consists as a rule of inferior or worthless species; of specimens crippled by fire, by the fall (accidental or otherwise) of nearby trees, by the logger's axe or foot, by teams and loads passing by, etc. In addition, many members of that nucleus will die when suddenly bereaved of the shelter (against drought, cold, hail, etc.), previously exercised by the old trees now removed. It must be remembered that a crop of weeds usually follows in the field after the harvest of valuable wheat; in the forest after the harvest of valuable timber. Such " weeds " are unable to secure for the owner of the land a sufficient rate of interest on the value of the soil and an adequate reimbursement of the taxes due on the soil. Another moment worthy of attention lies in the poor chances which a grain of seed stands, in nature's economy, to develop into a seedling, sapling, pole and tree. The probability is that only one grain of seed— out of millions of grains— produced by an individual tree during its lifetime succeeds in reaching tree size, replacing its progenitor on the forest floor. The ecologic incidents bringing about 95 S Y LVICULTTJ K E. i In- resuH are far from being elearlj undersl 1. si ill. it must 1..' the sylviculturist's aim to provide tor these incidents, it he desires t place the old crop, removed at an unnatural rale of rapidity, at an equally fast rate by an offspring resulting from self-sown seed. If the forester were satisfied to merely remove nature'-, mori- bunds, then he might gel along with a purely natural regeneration, entirely unaided by human -kill. As soon, however, a- hi- axe creates in the forest an unnatural death rate, the forester is compelled to also secure, bj intelligent means, a supernatural rate of birth. Human aid to natural regeneration should he denied where: a. The danger from forest tin- is such as in lender investments in second growth very unsafe. b. An outlay incurred for protection from lire is not apt to be refunded with interest by the value of the second growth. That much aid and that iimcli money should lie. in all other cases, -pent for the purpose of regeneration a- promises, in the owner's mind and according to the forester's forecast, the highest relative revenue on the investments made. At Biltmore, H>\ of the annual gross receipts are annually reinvested, to he applied to natural regeneration of the forest. Sylviculture and finance are continuously at loggerheads. From the business1 standpoint, however, that Sylviculture is certainly besl which proves lastingly most remunerative. Where and as lone- a- the prospective value of seedlings is small, only a small expense can reasonably incurred on behalf of Hi sir propagation. Again, seedlings are more endangered by fire than trees. Where, and as lone- as the danger from fire prevails in the forests of the United States, investments made for raising seedlings are so risky as to be inadvisable. Paragraph XL. Age of trees fit for natural seed regeneration (Enesar). The age of perfect pubertj depend- on species, density of stand, quality of soil ami climatic conditions. Generally speaking, it lies ahout the eightieth year of the trees. Birch, Alder. I. arch and Yellow Tine-, may be seed regenerated from their twenty-fifth to thirtieth year on; Oaks, Beeches and Firs from their sixtieth to eightieth year on. Tree- of verv old age, say over 200 years old, have poor seeds and often defv natural regeneration if occurring in pure, even-aged -land-. IM\4 SYLVICULTURE. Paragraph XLI. Methods of natural seed regeneration (Enesar). A fixed method is applicable in the arts only where a fixed type of conditions exists. Fixed types rarely exist in primeval woods. Hence the impossibility, from a sylvicultural standpoint, to adopt any fixed European method of seed regeneration for direct application in American practice. A second growth, obviously, pre- sents a more fixed set of conditions (it certainly lacks everywhere the hypermature age classes) than a primeval growth; and conse- quently, it allows of a more methodical treatment. In Biltmore Forest methodical treatment is, therefore, permissible; in Pisgah Forest it is not or not yet indicated. The types of seed regeneration might be considered: A. According to the relative position of old and new growth: I. The young growth develops underneath the old growth: . A a. Whilst the old growth is left intact (natural seed regenera- tion by advance growth), or b. Whilst the old growth is gradually reduced (natural seed regeneration under shelter woods). II. The young growth develops at the side of the old growth (natural seed regeneration from adjoining timber). B. According to the size of the units of regeneration, which mavjbe : I. Compartments, i. e.. a cove, a slope, a top or a coherent part thereof, comprising from ten to one hundred acres. II. Strips, i. e., figures of a more or less rectangular form, in which the length is a multiple of the breadth, the latter not exceeding 500 feet. III. Groups, i. e.. aggregates of growth of a more or less cir- cular form, covering 0.-1 to :: acres. IV. Patches, i. e., areas covered by the crown of an individual. pk+jA tree, about one one-hundredths of an aero in extent. +t a ju he figures given are meant to illustrate, and are not meant to — define (in this paragraph as well as in the following fifteen para- graphs). C. According to the degree in which the soil and the youngest seedlings are directly exposed to the sky: I. Regeneration without exposure — by advance growth. II. Regeneration with short, slight, partial exposure — under she Iter wood. III. Regeneration with entire, heavy exposure — from adjoining timber. D. According to the timing of lumbering and of reseeding: f>7 S Y L V I 0 U L T U R E. natural seed regeneration on (cleared compartment -<> I. Lumbering precedes reseedin clearings, namely : a. On uniformly cleared compartments type) ; b. On cleared strips (cleared strip type) ; c. On cleared groups (cleared group type); d. On cleared selected patches (cleared selection type). II. Lumbering coincides with reseeding— natural seed regenera- tion under shelterwood, namely : a. <»n uniformly sheltered compartments (shelterwood compart- ment type) ; b. On sheltered strips (shelterwood strip type); V c. On sheltered groups (sheltered group type) ; (1. On sheltered selected patches (shelterwood selection type). •>a' in. Lumbering follows reseeding — natural seed regeneration by * advance growth, namely: a. With uniform advance growth all over a compartment (ad- vance growth compartment type) ; b. With advance growth in strips (advance growth strip type); c. With advance growth in groups (advance growth group type); d. With advance growth in selected patches (advance growth selection type). E. According to the participation of ligneous weeds (bushes, seedlings, saplings, poles and trees of a negative value) in the V regeneration: ;l Totally successful seed regeneration; Groupwise successful seed regeneration; Patchwise successful seed regeneration: Individually successful seed regeneration; I nsuccessful seed regeneration. In America, it will be frequently advisable for the forester to merely work toward a "groupwise" or "patchwise" successful seed regenerate hi. F. According to the number and according to the distribution of standards left in the regeneration "area": Natural seed regen- cr.it inn a. With standards systematically left all over the compart- ments; b. With standards left in strips: c. With standards left in groups; d. With isolated scattering standards. The "compartment" types had better be called "uniform" types; the "selection" types had better be termed "patch" types. SYLVICUL T U R E. (Still the terms " shelterwood compartment system '* and " shelter- wood selection system" having become standard terms of forestal terminology, it seems unwise to throw them aside. A number of " pure types " may be, and usually are, combined int.) - bastard forms." Of course, only types more closely related allow of bastardizing. Bastard forms frequently found in the old country are: "Advance growth selection" and " shelterwood group" type; "Advance growth group " and " shelterwood compartment" type; "Shelterwood group" and "shelterwood strip" type; "Cleared strip" and "advance growth strip" type; "Cleared group" and "shelterwood group" type; "Cleared selection " and " shelterwood group ' type. Modern forestry abroad begins to despise methodical rules, gradually returning to nature with her irregularities. Pure, ab- stract types of seed regeneration are more and more discarded. The selection of a method or a combination of methods depends entirely upon the composition of the growing stock found; on local clangers; on local means of transportation: on value of stumpage and prospective value of seedlings. Where all age classes are mixed irregularly, individual selec- tion is, ceteris paribus, indicated. Where the age classes or the species appear in groups, the group method is or may lie advisable. In woods simultaneously maturing, the uniform type may recommend itself. The following paragraphs are arranged to conform with the view point given under " D." Paragraph XLII. Types in which lumbering precedes N. S. R. Where lumbering precedes regeneration, the area lumbered must be reseeded from the borders of adjoining woods. With increasing size of the area cleared of timber, the rapidity, the certainty and the quality of regeneration rapidly decrease. The fact that such regeneration is possible on a large scale, is readily proven by object lessons in the primeval woods (Long Leaf Pine; Bald Cypress; Lodgepole Pine: Douglas Fir) as well as in second-growth forests (White Pine in Lake States; Yellow Pine in the south; Spruce in the Karpathian Mountains). The chances for success depend on: A. The species, which must have light or winged seeds readily carried about by the wind tmany Pines, Spruces, Larches, Cotton- 99 s 5 i. \ l I i LTURE. woods, Birches, Yellow Poplar), and which musl no1 require, (luring their earliesl stages "t development, tin- presence of a shelterwood overhead. 11 The coincidence of the compass direction in which the clear- ing lies from the adjoining woods, with the direction of the wind preferably opening the cones and carrying the seed. C. 'J lie local danger from storm which might tear down, gradu- ally at least, the adjoining seed tree-. D. The condition of the cleared -oil and it- quality a- a ready seed-bed, influenced by the presence of weeds; by the decomposi- tion id' the humus; by the degree in which the mineral -oil ha- been laid bare in the course of logging operations; by the grade of the slope. E. lire- favorable or unfavorable; pasture favorable or un- favorable to regeneration, a- the case may he. F. The frequency of seed years, and the possibility of lumbering during a seed year. G. The size, the form and the environments of the area cut over. H. The possibility of preventing undesirable species (Gums, Black Jack Oak) and undesirable specimens, like low branched weed trees and spreading ''wolves," froi tcupying the area to be regenerated, and the possibility of regenerating all, a few, or only one species. According to the size of the clearing, we distinguish between: The cleared compartment type (large areas cleared); The cleared strip (narrow belts cleared); The cleared group type (fair sized groups cleared away); The cleared selection type (small bunches of trees or merely single trees cut). Paragraph XLIII. The cleared compartment type. A. The area bared at one stroke by lumbering comprises be- tween, say. ten ami one hundred acres. If the width of the clearing is less than 500 feet, the •■cleared strip" type i- reached. If the acreage cleared is much in excess of 100 aire-, the develop- ment of a second growth i- very -low. very poor, yerj doubtful, so that the character id' a sylvicultural type is lost. A number (say five) of s 1 year- are required to restock the ground. The bordering w Is, from which reseeding i- expected, musl not offei an unprotected front to the prevailing storm direction. The regeneration obtained i-. naturally, very heterogeneous and contain- a greal deal ol misshapen advance growth a- well a- o£ w 1 growth. 100 S Y L V I CU L T U E E. Weeds trees left on the ground might be girdled if belonging to an undesirable species (Beech in Galizia). A few seed trees might be left scatteringly (if wind firm) in groups or in strips, preferably close to the roads, often consisting of doty specimens without any value. An usher growth of Cottonwoods. Birches, Sumac. Locust, Sassa- fras, etc., frequently precedes the second growth desired on the ground. Fires preceding the seeding, and immediately in the wake of logging, greatly enhance the success of Yellow Pines. Douglas Fir, etc Yellow Poplar, on the other hand, is checked by the heavy growth of weeds following fires. Stock pasture is of advantage, where it presses the seeds into the soil, and where it checks the weeds. The clearing should comprise, if possible, only one side of a cove at a time or the lower part of a slope <>r the bottom of a cove, so as to allow of greater ease in reseeding. B. Actual application: This type lias been adopted, — not con- fessedly but actually — by the Austrian Government in dealing with the primeval woods of Galizia, consisting of Beech. Fir and Spruce. The Bureau of Forestry has tried to adopt it. in modified form, for the Minnesota National Forest Reserve and for the majority of it- business-working plans (Sawyer and Austin; Weyerhauser) . Thousands of acres of abandoned farm land all over the Eastern states have been reforested in tin- manner, frequently against the owner's will. C. Advantages: The cleared compartment type -h»w< the fol- lowing advantages: I. Greatesl ease in lumbering. II. Concentrated operations and concentrated supervision. III. Few permanent main links of transportation required. IV. Smallest deviation from the old-time manner of destruc- tive lumbering. V. Possibility of temporary use of the clearing for the pro- duction of field crops benefited by the fertilizing effect of the humus. VI. Ease of artificial reinforcing and possibility of soil prepara- tion by plowing and by tiring: of covering the seeds by pasturage. D. Disadvantage-: T. Applicability to few species only. II. Danger of partial or complete failure, especially in clearings covering 100 or more acres, or in case of border trees unfavorably situated. 101 ^ SYLVICULTUB E. UJ. Danger from heavy fires where the soil and the humus is baked by the action of the sun, with heaps of debris left on the ground after wholesale logging. IV. Second growth consists largely of wolves, and of spreading advance growth and of poles undesirably ramified. Expensive gird- ling or cutting of seed-bearing weed tree-, belonging to a worthless species. V. The running expenses for protection from fire and for taxes are, to a degree, independent from the quality of the young growth. They are relatively high, and hence absurdly unbearable, if that growth is poor, straggling and very slow to develop, all of which i> apt to be the case in this type of seed regeneration. Thirty years after_ clearing, the average age of the young growth is not jipt to exceed ten years. ^ VI. (.roups ofadvance growth are almost sure to be destroyed or to be crippled by logging and by sudden change of environments. Paragraph XLIV. The cleared strip type. A. The width of the cleared strip is from two to five times the length of the mother tree. When one belt is seeded suc- cessfully, another strip is cut into the timber alongside the first belt, and so on. Soil work i- not required, provided the strip is cleared' in a seed year. Usually the soil is torn up sufficiently by the removal of a huge number of logs snaked or rolled or shot along the strip and over the strip to the nearest road. One seed year is rarely enough to secure full regeneration of a Strip. In the Alps, i'ine regeneration takes from twelve to thirty years. On hardwood soil, the weeds are to be dreaded, preeminently so on fertile ground after fires. It is wise to leave a few wind-firm mother tree- scattered over the strip, notably immature specimens of the most desirable species. Less desirable species on the nearby border might be girdled or removed by extending the removal of thai species into the bordering forest. In addition, valuable hypeiniature trees might be withdrawn from the nearby forest. The cleared strip type doc- not require a permanent system of transportation of great intricacy, the strip- themselves forming the main lines of transportation. The narrow edge of the strip merely is touched, on the valley side, by a road. According to the grade <d' the -trip, sleighs, cable-, chutes, donkey engines, etc., might be used to deliver the logs to the road. SYLVICULTURE. At the beginning of operations, the first strip should be made in sheltered localities so as to allow the forest adjoining leewards to remain unharmed by storm. The strips proceed windwards gradually, the next being cleared when regeneration in the preceeding strip is fully secured. The danger from insects and fungi is small. The danger from fire, to begin with, is great, although not as great as in large clearings to which the wind and sun are freely admitted. Later on. the even-aged character of the strip will help to check fires. Nothing prevents the owner from reinforcing the strip arti- ficially if he thinks fit. Healthy groups of advance growth, formed by desirable species in the belt at the time of logging, might be carefully husbanded. Natural regeneration will set in as well at the side of the belt underneath the bordering mother trees. "Re- generation runs into the old woods."' This is a very desirable *tate of affairs allowing, in the next belt-, regeneration to start in advance of cutting. (Bastardizing the cleared -trip type with the advance growth strip type.) B. Actual application: This type of regeneration i- locally used in the Tyrolian and Austrian Alps, for Spruce, Larch, Pine. The form ot the strips need not be rectangular. It depends on maturity of growth, configuration of soil, danger from storm. The type seems well adapted to present American conditions, requiring, of course, local modifications or bastardations, governed by species and market. Its applicability, however, rests on the existence of some permanent chief arteries of transportation. At Biltmore, the type is applied, in modified form, for the reproduction of Yellow Poplar and Yellow Pine. C. Advantages of the cleared strip type: I. Applicability to many species, to many conditions and to many localities. II. Concentration of logging operations and of sylvicultural help possible. Cheap logging by donkey engines, chutes, snaking, etc. III. Many points of attack, at which the seasons cut might be obtained, are at the disposal of the forester, if he so desires. Hence great freedom of action. IV. Comparative safety of the old woods from storm: of the young growth from fire, drought, frost, insects, etc. D. Disadvantages of the cleared strip type: I. If the seeding of the strip is not effected soon after clear- ing, the soil is baked by the sun. weeds are started and the ecological conditions are affected in a manner barring the success of seed regeneration and necessitating artificial help. 103 SYLVII i l. T ub E. II. Border trees are exposed to sun scald. III. Deer frequent the strips and spoil the young growth. IV. The soil of the strip— especially of the first strip in a series — is rarely " in heat," certainly not over the entire strip, so that the seeds falling upon it have a poor chance of success. This is the case, preeminently, in the humid mountains where a heavy layer of raw humus covers the ground. A large number of years will often elapse, before the next adjoining strip can l>e taken in hand. V. The strips should be cut where the timber i- mosl mature at the time. — and not in a succession merely dependent on the con- dition of the young growth and on the necessity of proceeding against the prevailing storm direction. Paragraph XLV. The cleared group type. A. The groups cut comprise from 0.1 acre to three acres. The form is roundish, oval, square, etc., as the case may be, usually coinciding with a geological feature, f. i.. a dell, a spur, a spring- head. 'ihe incentive for group-cutting lies either in the simultaneous maturity of the trees stocking on it, or in the desire to obtain conditions particularly favorable to the reproduction of one of the species appearing in the old timber; or the group, previously stocked with an undesirable species, is to be seeded by a better kind. B. Actual application: This type has never played an important role in connection with natural seed regeneration. Sylviculturally 11 seems well adapted to Yellow Poplar. Long Leal' "Pine. Lodge- pole Pine, White Pine, ahsoto Hickory andJJak^ Where the groups run in the shape- of long tongues, parallel at regular intervals, they are termed "coulisses." The coulisses are usually meant for the regeneration of more light-demanding species; the "benches" separating the coulisses for the regenera- tion of more shade-bearing species. In Germany, the space formerly occupied by a cleared group is termed a "hole." Where the groups, after reseeding, are gradu- ally enlarged, the cleared group-type i- bastardized with the shel- terwood group type. C. Advantages: The soil of the group, thanks to a sufficient amount of side -had", retains its freshness and porosity. It is sheltered from severe winds and severe heat. Species too sensitive for reproduction in larger clearings or strips can be raised in 104 S Y L V I C I L T U R E. groups. \\ here the age classes appear in bunches, each bunch can be harvested at its proper age of maturity. No harm or little harm is clone to young growth during the logging season. D .Disadvantages: I. Operations are scattering. II. Intricate system of permanent roads, required. III. Groups surrounded by tall timber frequently act as "frost- holes" where young growth suffers badly from early frosts and late frosts in_clear_njghts. IV. Thin barked trees surrounding the group suffer from sun scald: flat-rooted trees suffer from storm. Paragraph XLVI. The cleared selection type. A. In this type, individual trees considered mature are selected for removal, either absolutely singly, or in very small patches formed by neighboring trees. The clearings made are so small that only shade-bearing species will regenerate thereon, unless the soil be particularly strong. The cut is so scattering, that the soil i- not sufficiently "plowed" by the loggers. Hence it will not act as a ready -cod-bed. In mixed woods composed of many species, only the most valuable kind is usually withdrawn, and the small gaps made are occupied by shade-bearing and often less valuable species. Beneath hypermature trees, the soil has frequently hardened and defies any attempt of seedlings to establish themselves after logging. The cleared selection type is almost invariably bastardized with the shelterwood selection type and with the advance growth selec- tion type. B. Actual application: In the tropics. Teak. Mahogany, Ebony, etc., are cut by -elec- tion, frequently regardless of the effect which logging will have on regeneration. In Europe, the type is found in the Fir forest- owned by farm- ers: in parks; in protective forests at the headwaters of rivers: on very steep slopes dotted with Larch, in the Tyrol. In America. Yellow Poplar. Walnut. Cherry. White Oak. etc., are cut by way of individual selection. — but with no regard to reproduction. Also White Pine in the Spruce and Fir woods of the Adirondacks where it never succeeds, withdrawn alone, to reproduce its kind. SYLVICULTURE. » . Advantages: I. The water- storing power of the soil is generally well pre- served under this type. II. The second growth is never endangered by snow or drought or frost or sleet; the old trees remaining do not suffer from storm or sun scald. III. Small wood lots may yield a stead; annual supply <>\ timber or wood under this type. IV. The type is well adapted to deer parks. D. Disadvantages: I. The operations are very scattering. Indeed, they cover con- tinuously the entire forest or a large percentage thereof. Diffi- culty oi supervision. II. An intricate system of permanent roads is required, since the axe returns every few years to the same compartment. It the intervals of years are long — say from ten to twenty years — the type is bastardized with the cleared group type or with the shelter- wood group type. '111. The type as a means of regeneration, in its purity, is pos- sible only where a. The compartments contain a mixture of all age classes, with the hypermature classes not too badly prevailing: 1 1. The species to be regenerated is an intense shade-bearer; e. The soil is strong enough to allow light-demanding seedlings a chance at surviving a long period of partial suppression. IV. The species removed — presumably the most valuable species — has reduced prospects of propagating itself, struggling against competing species, the number of its seed trees being relatively decreased. V. Small chance for reinforcing. VI. Impossibility of protection against Hies under headway. Paragraph XLVII. Types in which lumbering coincides with N. S. R. In these types of natural seed regeneration — so-called shelter- vrood types lumbering and resoeding go hand in hand, both pro- gressing seriatim, slowly, cautiously. In the pure types, no tree is removed, unless the removal has 8 distinci bearing — or is expected to have it — on the production of a progeny or on its further develop- ment. Seedlings less than five years old usually stand within a few yard- of their mothers. This distance is gradually increased — in the course of up to fifty year- until the youngsters do not SYLVICULTURE. require any more, or rather despise, the benefit of the parents' presence. Lumbering operations are carried on— in one and the same limited lot — during a number of years. Where the mother trees are very rapidly removed, after re- seeding, from the proximity of the youngsters, the pure shelter- wood types approach the types of cleared compartments, cleared strips, etc. Where the mother trees are very slowly removed, after reced- ing, from the proximity of the youngstser, the pure shelterwood types approach, or bastardize with, the advance growth types. The chances for success depend on: A. Sylviculture! talents of the forester in charge and of his staff, also on the size of the ranges. B. Frequency of seed years and time allowed for the entire operations. C. Shade-bearing character of youngsters and firmness of parents. D. Existence of a permanent system of transportation. E. Configuration. F. Danger from storm, sleet, fire, animals, etc. locally existing. <;. Size of timber, value of timber, percentage of debris and waste. H. Marketability of all species or of a lew. even of .me -ji.Mi.-~ only. According to the manner in which the forester selects the nuclei for reseeding, we distinguish the following types: I. Uniform type, or pure shelterw 1 compartment type, where the nuclei are geometrically and regularly distributed over the entirety of a large area (say over twenty to two hundred acres), the nuclei of the entire area being kept, during the entire progress of regeneration, in or about in the same uniform stage of development. il. Shelterwood strip type, where the nuclei proceed, like ad- vancing skirmishers, in regular military order from the leeward side to the windward side of a compartment (cove, slope, etc.). The nuclei to the leeward are kept in a more advanced stage of growth than those to the windward. III. Shelterwood group type, where the nuclei are carefully selected, irrespective of geometrical arrangements, merely on the basis of the fitness of the individual spot to act as a seed-bed. The groups are gradually enlarged, increasing in circumference like waves caused by stones thrown in the water, lit? ■fJ>. S \ l.Vk'l LT l J; E. IV. Shelters 1 selection type, where the mosl mature indi- viduals are everywhere and continuously selected for removal, individually or in small patches, with a view to simultaneous repro- duction of the species removed by seeds left on such patches. The patch does no! form a nucleus to !>e enlarged; it is to be retained for a long time in its original size. Paragraph XLVIII. The shelterwood compartment type of natural . S seed regeneration. A. This type is characterized by the uniform manner, in which lumbering and regeneration proceed over large areas. This uniformity is possible only in somewhat even-aged tracts. Great difficulties are experienced in mixed forests, owing to the difference of light requirements. The fixed conditions inviting the forester to adept this type arc of a rather rare character, almost absent from primeval woods. The education value of this type, however, is unparalleled. B. -Actual application: Shade bearers are better adapted to this type than light demanders. Beech is usually treated under this type; Maple and Ash frequently so; Oak largely in France, rarely in Germany: Fir and Spruce in parts of the Black Forest; Pine in the old country only rarely owing to its demands on light. This "military" type was created by George L. Haiti,-, toward the end of the eighteenth century. It was considered the ideal type of regeneration up to about 1S75. It is now far from being abandoned, maintaining its role as the most commonly used type of seed regeneration, although usually bastardized, in modern times, with the strip and the group type. C. Advantages: I. Thorough protection of the soil, of its productive capacity ami its porosity. II. Small risk of utter failure. III. Large tracts taken in hand at one and the same time TV. Methodical, military manner of proceeding which facili- tates instruction of the -tall' of rangers and proper execution of order- by the staff. V. Mother trees, standing above the young growth in is. dated position, yield an extra-increment of high value f" light increment ' ). VI. Young growth is well protected against climatic adversities. 1). Disadvantages: i. Difficulty of obtaining a desired mixture of species in the young growth. 108 S Y L V I OU L T I R E. LL Necessity for the entire number of old trees to reach maturity at or about at the same time. III. Even-aged forests are formed by this type which are badly endangered by insects, fungi, storm, snow, etc. IV. The young growth is badly damaged during the latter stages of logging operations, especially where heavy logs (not wood) are obtained and where the road system is deficient; further on steep slopes. E. The uniform system, being particularly instructive, deserves a most detailed consideration. To the mother trees is allotted a three-fold task, viz.: lo seed the "regeneration area." To protect the young growth from atmospheric hardships and weeds. To prevent deterioration of the soil during the early stages of the second growth. Three distinct stages of regeneration must be distinguished, viz.: I. The "preparatory stage, initiated by a preparatory cutting II. The "seeding stage," initiated by a seeding cutting. III. The - final stage." during which the final fellings take place. I. The preparatory stage: a. Purpose: The preparatory cutting intends: 1. To prepare the soil underneath the mother trees for a seed- bed, by increasing the rate of disintegration of vegetable matter. The soil is best prepared at a time when no w Is, but a few shoots ol sweel grasses appear her,, and there. The humus decom- poses at the quickest rate on limestone; at the slowesi rate on sana and sandstone. 1. To prepare the mother trees for regeneration by allowing them a larger crown space, thus inviting the development of seed bud-: further by increasing their stability, so that they may resist the storms when placed in a more isolated position; 3. To remove undesirable species, thus preventing them from propagating their kind. 4. To reduce the volume of the growing stock so as to facili- tate the maintenance of a normal growing stock and so as to have less material to remove when the young growth appears on the regeneration area. b. Duration: The duration of the preparatory stage depends upon the species and the soil. Shade-bearing species found in dense stands need a longer period of preparation than the light- demanding S Y LVICULTURE. species. On soil rich with lime and in the lowlands, the prepara- tory stage i> much shorter than on sandstone and in the highlands. c. Area: The area (in per cent, of the entire forest area) to be prepared depends upon the necessities of the market and of the mill (equal annual yield), on the prospects of a seed year, on the frequency of seed years, and on the urgency of other fellings. d. Trees: The preparatory cutting should remove all sickly trees and all undesirable species. Further, those which have the crowns low down to the ground, which will shade the young growth later on and which now lessen the rate of disintegration of vege- table matter. NO dominant trees should be taken out. Near the edge of the compartment it is wise to keep the leaf canopy as close ;i» possible, so a- to prevent the influence of drying winds. e. Marking: The forester himself should mark every tree to be taken out during the preparatory stage. When the wood cutters are not reliable, it is necessary to mark the stumps of the trees as well. f. Lumbering: Where it pays to dig out the tree by the roots, it is well to do so, because a better seed-bed is the result. Care should he taken that only trees marked are felled, and that those left are not damaged. There is no need to move the firewood and timber out to the roads, if the regeneration area otherwise allows of snaking, wagoning, etc. g. Pasture: Cattle should not be admitted any more for pas- turage during the preparatory stage. Pannage of hogs will be of good advantage. Mice and insects are eaten by them. Hogs break up the net work of roots, leaves and moss forming the soil cover and hindering germinating seeds from catching root. II. The seeding stage. a. Time: The best time for "seeding cutting" is a seed year. The forester should be able to tell from the looks of the buds whether a seed year is at hand. The frequency of seed years depends on the species and on the locality. If there is no prospect for seeds, the seeding cutting should he postponed, and if a sustained yield is desired, it should be made up by preparatory cuttings, final cuttings and thinnings. b. The area over which the seeding cutting should extend depends on the area prepared for regeneration, on the length of the period oi regeneration, on the periodical occurrence of seed years, on the requirements For ;i sustained yield and on the available market. The scarcer the seed years, the larger i> the area placed in the seeding stage when a mast year arrives. 110 SYLVICUL T U R E. The longer the period during which the seedlings require shelter, the larger is the area to be taken in hand at a seeding cutting. e. Trees: It is -wise to take the biggest trees first., as their removal at a later date will result in great damage to the young growth. If the forester is sure to be able to remove some more trees after the lapse of one or two years, a light seeding cutting is usually best. During the first two years of their lives the young seedlings stand a great deal of shade, even those of light -demanding species, on fair soil. The degree of light which should fall on the ground after a seeding cutting, depends on species, height of trees, form of trees and locality. In the case of tender and slow-growing species, the cover should be close. In the case of tall trees, slight interruptions of the leaf canopy is sufficient. On good soil, where weeds arc to be dreaded, the cover should be denser than under the reversed conditions. On a southern ex- posure, the cover should be dense. Fir, Beech and Spruce require a close stand of the mother trees on strong soil and at high elevations. Oak and Pine on alluvial sand of average quality should he tapped heavily. d. The proportion of trees left and trees cut might be gauged by: 1. The distance or space between the crowns. It is very diffi- cult to give any data as to the best distance of the crowns. The form of the crowns is so irregular that it is impossible to ascertain the best average distance. 2. The number of stems which gives a good idea of the cover overhead where yield tables are at hand, if the age and the locality are known. 3. The sectional area of the steins cut and of the stems remaining. 4. The volume cut and the volume remaining. e. Preparation of soil: Shade-bearing species maintaining the porosity of the soil better than light-demanding species often allow the forester to get along without any preparation of the soil. Under light-demanding species, on the other hand, the hardening of the soil at the time of seed cutting often necessitates the preparation of the ground so that it may serve as a seed-bed. This preparation may consist of: 1. Removal of leaves, weeds or moss. Ill SYLVICULTL K E. ■1. Working the ground by pasturing hogs. .*{. Wounding the soil in open spaces, with a hoe. 4. Breaking the soil with a strong plow. i. Lumbering. All cutting should be done as soon as possible after the seeds have dropped so as to bring them into contact with the ground at once. The wood or timber cut should be dragged to the roads previous to the germination 01 the seeds. The heavier the seed cutting is. the larger will be the percentage of seeds finding germination. Most of the seeds are imbedded by the steps of the woodsmen. Advance growth should be removed wherever it appears singly. ('are must be taken that remaining mother trees are do1 damaged by lumbering. g. Covering the seeds: The covering of the seeds is invariably left to nature or to hazard. It might l>e advisable, however, to secure a covering artificially with the help of a rake, or by plowing, after the seeds have dropped, or by pressing heavy seeds (nuts. acorns) into the ground with a blunt stick. h. Fire: After the seeds have dropped, the utmost care must be taken to prevent fire from running through the forest. A fire previous to the dropping of the seed may he_ advantageous, espe- cially in the ease id' Yellow Pines! After the -ceding, however, it should he prevented. III. The Final stage. The removal of the seed trees left takes place during the final stage. a. Purpose: By the gradual removal of the mother trees, the young forest is gradually lead into a life under changed conditions, until it is ready to enjoy the full influence of sunshine, air and rain. b. Number of cuttings: The more gradual the removal, the le>> damage results for the young growth from the logging opera- tions and from changed environments. On the other hand, it is cheapest and best, from the logger's standpoint, to remove the seed I rees at one stroke. c. Beginning: The beginning of the final fellings depends on the development of the young growth. In the ease of poor Soil, or light- demanding species and of northern climate, fellings should start in the fall following the seeding. In the ease of shade-bearing species, strong soil and southern climate the second or third fall should be waited for. The drier the locality, the quicker must he the removal of the mother trees. d. Duration: The duration id' the final stage "depends on species. 112 SYLVICULTURE. on quality of soil, on success of seeding cutting, on occurrence of subsequent seed years and on climate. A tender, slow-growing and shade-bearing species allows of a protracted period of removal. A few trees left in isolated positions are apt to damage the young growth by the reflection of the sun's rays from the hark; this is the case especially in species having a whitish bark (Beech, Maple, Birch, Silver Fir). e. Marking for final removal: Broad-leaved trees should be marked in summer Avhilst the trees ana the young growth are in leaf. By the first final felling only small tire- -hall be removed, after Hess. From the second fall (after the seed cutting) on, the seedlings being stronger at that time, it is wise to take the largest tree-. f. Season: The cutting of the mother trees should take place when snow covers the ground, so as to do the least possible damage to the young growth. Fellings must be discontinued during hard frost. Broad-leafed species should not he cut before leaves are dropped as they will do more damage to their progeny when felled in leaf. Hess is in favor of cutting in fall, claiming that the young growth at that time is particularly tough and elastic. He does not attribute much weight to the presence of snow unless it covers the young growth entirely. g. Stumps and roots: If the trees are dug out by the roots, the force with which they hit the ground is considerably lessened. In coniferous forests, many parasitic insects breed in stumps, and in that case it may he necessary to dig them out id' the ground, or to poison them. Where the tree is entirely surrounded by young growth, digging should be prohibited. h. How to fell a tree: The tree to be cut should be thrown onto that place where it is likely to do the least damage — especially onto " blanks." It is wise to throw the crowns of several trees onto the same spot so as to centralize the damage. On the other hand, many sylviculturists prefer to throw the crowns of the trees into the very thickest young growth, claiming that the damage thereby done is considerably less, and that many youngsters will be left undamaged. i. Standards: In many cases, a few trees are left standing for a second rotation. Such trees are sailed " standards." Standards of Oak, Pine and Ash are frequently found. They should not be left unless they stand close to a road, or unless they are certain to outlast a second rotation. 113 SYLYIl I I-T I i: E. j. Pruning of mother trees: Low brandies which overshadow the young growth heavily should be cut. k. Transportation of wood: All wood and timber should be moved to the nearest roads as soon as possible alter the trees are cut. Speck removal is especially necessary in coniferous forests, the young growth having little reproductive power. A snow cover might be used to remove the wood on sleds; high-wheeled trucks will answer splendidly on level ground. The method of " roping " used in the Black Forest also saves the young growth. All wood and timber must be removed from the regeneration area previous to the opening of the buds. 1. Pasturage: There is no need to say that the young growth should be protected against pasture. m. Reinforcing: Blanks should be filled only when the mother trees have been entirely removed. The plants may be taken from dense places where the natural regeneration is complete or. better, from nurseries. Paragraph XLIX. The shelterwood strip type of natural seed regeneration. A. This type bears the same ratio to the shelterwood com- partment type of regeneration which the cleared strip type bears to the cleared compartment type. In the shelterwood strip type, as in the cleared strip type, fellings and regeneration begin at the leeward side of a compart- ment i cove, slope) and proceed gradually against the direction of the prevailing storms. Beavy-seeded species as well as light-seeded species allow- of the -nip type. Distinct light demanders. however, defy it on the poorer grades of soil. The nuclei are laid out geometrically in the shape of strips crossing the prevailing wind-direction at right angles. The most leeward strip is in the final stage; the most windward strip is in the preparatorj stage; the middle strip is in the seeding stage, provided thai the conditions are normal. The breadth of a strip depends on species, frequency of seed years, configuration of ground and so on. At a breadth of over 500 feet, the -nip type bastardizes with the compartment type. M«,re frequently, tne shelterwood -trip type i- bastardized with the shelterwood group type. Regeneration of a cove, slope, tract, etc. under tin' pure strip type, is exceedingly -low. mile-- there are at hand a number of - 114 S YLVlc ILT ike. " series of strips," all triplets, consisting of a preparatory, a seed- ing and a final strip. The first strips are usually made, as in the cleared strip type, in well-sheltered ravines or gullies: or at the windward edge of lake-, fields., young growth; or at the windward edge of storm-firm trees (Oaks), where there is a mixture of storm-firm species with species endangered by storm. The form of the strips need not be exactly rectangular. In the mountains, the strips usually run up and down the slopes— not horizontal— so as to facilitate the transportation of timber and wood removed from the strip. B. Actual application: This type is frequently seen in the coniferous woods of the European moderately cold zone; also in Beech woods and Oak woods. Like the uniform type, the strip type is not exactly natural. For that reason, the primeval woods do not exhibit any illustra- tions of the strip type. C. Advantages: The advantages of the shelterwood strip type are identical with those of the shelterwood compartment type— excepting advantage III. It is especially adapted to small pieces of property, which could not yield steady returns under the uniform type. Greater security from storm is characteristic for the strip type. D. Disadvantages: I. Difficulty of obtaining a desired mixture of species in the young growth. II. rrees at the extreme windward edge of a cutting series obtain an extravagantly high age, whilsl regeneration proceeds slowly and gradually against them. III. Tardiness of a complete regeneration of a whole compart- ment, slope or cove, where there are only a few points of first attack. IV. Operations are more scattering than in the shelterwood compartment type. Paragraph L. The shelterwood group type of natural seed regenera- tion. A. Characteristic features. I. species: All species can be dealt with in a group system; those endangered by windfall, however, require a modification of the system, or -mall rotation, or a regular progress of the groups toward the storm danger. 115 SYLVICULTURE. II. Beginning: In the shelterwood system, the nuclei for groups are formed at a time, at which the soil begins to be, here and there, a ready recipient for seed. In the nucleus, two or three trees are cut, to begin with, and a few seedlings soon enter an appearance. III. Continuation: The young growth gradually spreads out, more or less peripherically, from the nucleus, appearing at the feel of the nearest trees. 'Ihese trees, in turn, are gradually removed, whilst the groups of seedlings continue to enlarge. Finallj one group will flow into the other, and the regeneration will present a waving leaf canopy. The irregularity of the canopy depends "ii the rapidity with winch the groups could be enlarged. IV. Means of transportation: The type obviously requires a finely meshed, permanent network of transportation. The axe returns to the group under formation periodically, say every three to ten years, during a period of regeneration comprising from fifteen to fifty years. \. Soil protection: The soil is continuously protected from intensive insolation, and is hence kept in continuous productiveness. VI. Dangers: Protection from fire is very difficult; protection from storm difficult, although easier than in the shelterwood com partment type. Insects, fungi, and snowbreak are not to be dreaded much more than under the selection system. VII. Lumbering: .Mother trees are always felled in a manner forcing them away from the group. Hypermature trees close to the -roup are extracted at the same time. Lumbering operations are necessarily scattered. Hence the logging expenses and the cosi of supervision range very high. The removal (snaking) of the trees cut takes place through the benches of trees left between the groups so that the soil is stirred up continuously within the benches. The groups should be started, if possible, :lt the upper end of a 'slope so that the logs need not be snaked through young growth. VIII. Artificial help: To start regeneration of a nucleus, and to accelerate the enlargement of a group, mosses, weeds and litter on the ground may be removed previous to a seed year (bastardiz- ing with advance growth group type). The so-called "hair-dressing" of groups, by which misshapen and branchy growth is cut back, and the wave form of groups is maintained, maj he seen in the Black Forest. B. Actual application: The shelterwood group type appears to he a type of regeneration sometimes adopted by primeval nature in Beech. Maple. Fir and Pine w Is. 1 10 SYLVICULTURE. As a sylvicultural type, the shelterwood group system has been fathered by Charles Gayer. It is the most modern type of German n. s. r., applied especially in the natural seed regeneration of Spruce and Beech. C. Advantages: I. The type grants the forester the utmost liberty of action, by offering him a large number of points at which to start and at which to continue his logging operations. II. In mixed forests, the system allows of fostering the most valuable species and of checking the less desirable species or the weed species. III. The type does not take any sylvicultural chances. IV. The young growth is well protected against the usual atmospheric dangers. V. The good qualities of the soil are carefully husbanded. D. Disadvantages: I. The type makes unusual demands on the personal and local attention of the manager as well as of the stall, necessitating small ranges and high administrative expenses. II. Mother trees at the leeward side (if an enlarged group are subject to dangers from storm; on the northeast side of a group subject to dangers from sun scald. III. A large outlay is incurred for logging the tires owing to the scattering character of the operations and owing to the care required in felling and transportation, for the benefit of both young and old growth. IV. In the case of very large trees, covering by their crowns a- much as 500 to 1,000 square feet, the removal of an individual tears too big a hole into the forest and enlarges the group too rapidly at a stroke. V. The type does not allow of the removal of hypermature trees with proper expedition. They are removed only when the waves of the group begin to touch their feet. VI. The soil in the proximity of white barked trees bordering a group is scorched by reflected sun rays. Paragraph LI. The shelterwood selection type of natural seed regeneration. This type scarcely exists in a pure form. Where it exists, it is invariably bastardized with the cleared selection or the advance growth selection type of natural seed regeneration. The pure type would imply the immediate development (or rather the simultaneous development! of a seeding growth in the 117 S YLYICULT r I! E. very year (a seed year) in which the individual trees eery irregu- larly, very scatteringly, on the basis of their relative maturity- are selected tor removal. Where the removal leaves a blank, we meet the cleared selec- tion type. Where the removal allows an advance growth already at hand to fill the gap, there we meet the advance growth selection type. The premises for the shelterwood selection type are identical with those for the cleared selection type and for the advance growth selection type. Paragraph LII. Types in which lumbering follows after n. s. r. In these types of natural seed regeneration — so-called advance growth typo— no tree is removed unless its foot be already sur- rounded by a young progeny of desirable character which has pre- viously developed beneath the parent's or step-parent's leaf canopy. The case of exceedingly fertile soil and the case of step-parents naving a light leaf canopy excepted, absolute shade bearers only can be propagated by this type. So f. i., Hemlock. Fir, Beech, Maple, Lawson's Cypress, Western Red Cedar. In the hake States, White Pine is found as a regeneration formed in advance beneath mature Norway Tine- acting as step- parents (advance growth group type). Tn the Adirondacks, Spruce regenerates similarly underneath mature Cottonwoods acting as step-parents or, on very fertile soil, selectionwise beneath Beech, Maple and Birch. Striking it is thai species not absolutely shade enduring are. in many a case, loth to l>c regenerated, as an advance growth, at tli" Feel of their actual parents, whilst willing to lie suppressed beneatb step-parents of apparently similar density of foliage (Yellow Poplar at Biltmore underneath Oak or Short leaf Pine; Spruce underneath Cottonwoods). , Specie- regenerating under their own kin resemble altricial (nidi- cole) birds; species avoiding parental superstructure might he likened to precocial (nidifugal) birds. The chances for successful regeneration in these types 3eem ex- cellent. Still, the following points musl not he losi sighi of: I. Advance growth badly suppressed for a long time is fre- quently -,, badly crippled that it fail- to recover within a reasonable number of years. II. The advance growth is badly -mashed by and during the fell- ing operation-, unless the mother trees are pinned and lopped before us; BYLVICUL T U R E. felling, and unless the timber obtained is carried out either by hand, or on high wheel trucks, or on a heavy cover of snow pro- tecting the advance growth. Under any circumstances, fellings during the period of vegetation must be avoided. ill. Advance growth suddenly exposed to the full influence of sun, rain, snow, sleet, etc., is apt to suffer in case of sensitive species. IV. A minute system of permanent roads is required, the advance growth usually appearing in groups or patches. V. if the pure types of advance growth n. s. r. were strictly adhered to, a regulation of the annual cut according to the condi- tions of the market would be difficult to obtain. Hypermature trees would have to be left everywhere — merely because young growth if often slow to form on their feet. In such cases, artificial preparation of a seed-bed (f. i., by uncovering the mineral soil) seem- absolutely required, so a- to expedite the formation of advance growth. If the leaf canopy overhead is opened al the -a me time by felling operations, the types bastardize with the shelterwood t.\ pr- of n. s. r. According to the extent of the area covered by an advance growth of suitable character we distinguish Let ween: a. Advance growth compartment type of n. s. v., the areas uniformly covered by advance growth measuring from twenty to one hundred acres (rare). b. Advance growth strip type of n. s. r.. the area uniformly covered by advance growth appearing a- -tup- measuring up to 500 feet in breadth (very rare). c. Advance growth group type of n. -. r.. the groups covered by advance growth having an extent of from one-tenth to three acres (frequent). d. Advance growth selection type of n. s. r., the young seed- lings and saplings appearing in scattered ami small patches (very common ) . Under "advance growth" is understood an aggregate (small or large) of seedlings or saplings belonging to a desirable species and formed without any human intention or attention, solely by nature, beneath a totally or partially untouched leaf canopy overhead. Spreading advance growth appearing in bunches or groups can be doctored up with axe and brushhook and machetes, by an appli- cation of " hairdressing." Where the advance growth is not freed, by one single operation, from the superstructure of parents and step-parents overhead, the 119 SYLVICU LTURE. advance growth types are further bastardized with shelterwood types. Paragraph LIII. The advance growth compartment type of natural seed regeneration. A. The type i- applicable only where large areas exhibit on strong soil a uniform advance growth, consisting of seedlings, of saplings and possibly of small poles. Previous to lumbering, the leaf canopy consists of two tiers: an upper tier formed by the parents (or step-parents) and a lower tier formed by the advance growth. Lumbering removes the upper tier entirely and leaves the lower tier intact— if possible. In the safety of the lower tier lies the great difficulty of the system, especially on rough ground, in handling heavy logs of the superstructure, in dealing with cheap stumpage, in cutting soft woods characterized by small healing power and in the absence of an intricate system of transportation. Where the upper story of trees consists of say 10,000 feet b. in. per acre, or of more, the ground is literally littered witli logs or boles during the logging operations, and the advance growth has hut a slight chance to survive the death of its progenitors. B. Actual application: The type is found, in rare cases, abroad under the misnomer of a modified " selection system," where and when the logger returns for a wholesale removal of mature trees, at intervals of about twenty years, to the same compartments. The type is also practical where prolific seed years produce, in mild sites and on strong soil, a. uniform advance growth in even- aged Beech or Firwoods, without any previous human interference with the leaf canopy Overhead (so-called regeneration from a com- plete-growing stock ) . In the United States, compact advance growth is rarely found — possibly so in the case of Tsuga heterophylla. The destruction of the superstructure, however, usually followed by fires, tends to annihilate every vestige of advance growth. C. Advantages: Where the system can be carried through, it offers the follow- ing advantages : I. Concentrated logging. II. Well-preserved productiveness of the -oil. HI. Soil never idling, hut producing without any delay. 120 SYLVICULTU R E. D. Disadvantages: I. The type is applicable only to intense shade bearers; and these shade bearers are very apt to suffer from sudden changes of environments. II. The logging expenses are very badly increased in the attempt to save the advance growth from destruction. III. Under any circumstances, the rapid removal of mother trees inflicts scars upon the young growth apt to serve as entrance gates for fungi and insects. Paragraph LIV. The advance growth strip type of natural seed regeneration. A. Advance growth, being a chance product, is rarely found in symmetrical, long-drawn strips. Where the clear strip-type is in- troduced, however, a strip of advance growth is often and easily Btarted underneath the border trees joining the cleared strip to the windward. In that case, the advance growth strip-type is bastard- ized witli the clear strip type. • B. Actual application: The type is found only in the bastard form just mentioned. C. Advantages: I. Xo expense required for regeneration (unless weeds, leaves or moss are removed). II. Advance growth is readily saved, where the logs are removed through the adjoining woods. III. A road system touching the lower edge of the strip- is sufficient. IV. Soil is never laid bar.'. V. Little damage from rainfall. D. Disadvantages: I. Scattering operations. II. Type is not applicable to light demanders. III. Hypermature trees must be left in the woods until tiie strips, after many years, may approach them. IV. Points of attack from which cutting may proceed are apt to be lacking, unless the forester is able to maintain a very large number of narrow . cutting series, helped by the configuration of the ground. Paragraph LV. The advance growth group type of natural seed regeneration. A. In nature, advance growth usually appears in small bunches or in groups, for the reason that there is always a chance for many 121 SYLVICULTURE. seedlings to sproul and develop on a Bpot where light, humidity and soil allow a single individual to make a start alone. In the primeval woods, groups of advance growth formed by shade bearing species are almost invariably at hand. Even light demanders may form small groups of advance growth in spite of a superstructure over- bead, provided that the soil is strong enough to support them. Such groups, freed from the trees superstrueting them, will develop one or a number of saplings which in turn and in course of time may yield one or a few poles promising to grow into trees of a loggable size. Very frequently the groups arc formed not under the leai canopy of the parent species, but undereneath another species act- ing as a step-parent. Indeed, step-parents of a rather selfish kind, inimical to the children, are frequently encountered in tree life, handicapping and killing the young progeny thirsting at their feet for light and ram. The endurance of advance growth living under adverse condi- tions is at times remarkably great. Fir, Spruce, Beech and Maple may be met grown only six feet high when GO years old. ret aided by parental superstructure. The pure advance growth group type is frequently bastardized, in Europe, with the shelterwood group type when the forester u>e~ existing groups of advance growth as nuclei to be gradually enlarged, instead of using spots as nuclei for group regeneration on which the soil chances to be in a conceptions condition. Further, when a shelterwood group is forming, advance growth groups are frequently started, under the influence of side light on seedlings and humus, at a goodly distance from the shelterwood group, under- neath an apparently heavy superstructure of mother tree-. The advance growth group type pure and simple, however, merely implies the freeing of chance growth from a superstructure. It ha- nothing to do with the gradual enlargement of a group by ringwise cutting around the group. The "• hairdressing ' or groups of advance growth i- some- times commendable. B. Actual Application: Systematically, this type i- nowhere applied in its purity. Accidentally, however, the lumbermen of America happen to employ it in woods composed of Fir, Hemlock. Ma] ile. Beech, etc. Primeval nature employs this type quite largely I f. i.. in Chestnut-oak woods at Biltmore). SYLVIGUL T U R E. C. Advantages: The advantage- of the type are identical with those given under C, I, II and IV. in paragraph LIV. In addition, this type may often allow the forester to favor a desirable species of shade-bearing character. Under sylvieultural care, it renders regeneration an absolute certainty. The trees forming the superstructure frequently happen to be of a marketable size. The type does not require much sylvi- cultural understanding. D. Disadvantages: I. Border trees to the leeward of advance growth are subject to windfall and sun -raid. II. Advance growth groups continue to be badly suppressed, along the edge of the group, by border tree-. III. The logging operations arc -tattering, and an intricate system of permanent roads i- required. IV. Only intense shade hearers can be properly managed under this type: light demanders found in mixture with shade bearers must gradually disappear from the mixture. The shade bearers will readily form groups of advance growth underneath light demanders; but not vice versa. Paragraph LVI. The advance growth selection type of natural seed regeneration. A. This type is usually bastardized with the cleared and with the shelterwood selection type. The selection by the forester of trees to be cut might be either oy single trees or by very small bunches of trees underlaid with a carpet of advance growth covering about one one-hundredth acre of ground. The logging operations, as in all selection types, are exceed- ingly scattering: indeed, they ought to continuously extend, as a matter of theoretical principle, over the entire forest. Only shade hearers, notably Fir. Hemlock and Spruce, are well adapted to the type of advance growth selection. The type, like the cleared and the shelterwood selection type, renders the construction of an intricate network of road- neces- sary. Every tree, so to speak — not every strip or every compart- ment— must be continuously accessible. It might be necessary to prepare the soil, in scattered patches, where the layer of humus is too deep, and where the soil is so hardened or so covered with weed- a- to prevent any chance of n. s. r. 123 SYLVICULTU RE. Since the cuttings are comparatively light, the removal of the logs prepares the ground insufliciently for the conception of seed. Seedlings and saplings in advance growth stand under very heavy shade for many a year, usually in small bunches of a few dozen specimens. Misshapen seedlings and saplings, also those badly damaged during logging operations, should be cut, or cop- piced in the case of hardwoods. B. Actual application: Wherever the selection type is applied in Europe, it is pre- eminently applied in the shape of advance growth selection type; especially so in parks, in small farm wood lots and in protective forests. Usually, every compartment (cove, slope) contains a wild mix- ture of age classes of trees. The axe returns to a compartment in intervals of from one to ten years. The Beech, although an intense shade bearer, develops very branchy stems under such conditions (Beech forests in Bucking- ham-hire. England). In primeval nature, all or practically all scattering and sparse species are subjected to seed regeneration of the advance s selection type. The accidental death of trees in the superstructure allows a patch of advance growth found underneath to develop. Instances: White Oak and Scarlet Oak at Biltmore; also Spruce on hardwood slopes in the Adirondacks. It is surprising to find that scattering species are regenerated by primeval nature in a type which is considered by the sylvicul- ture only applicable to intense shade bearers. The explanation lies in nature's long-lasting patience and in her failure to be dis- heartened when failing in innumerable attempts. ( '. Advantages: I. The type protects the soil, and hence the waters, best of all. II. It protects the young growth from frost, drought, high winds, insects, sleet and snow. III. It is particularly pleasing, from the aesthetic standpoint by the unusually large variety of the pictures proffered. IV. Since every acre of ground continuously retains its leaf canopy, no sunshine, air and rain go to waste in young growth insufficiently covering areas laid bare. At the same time, continu- ous retention of moisture in the soil allows of greater fertility: hence the quantity of wood fibre annually produced is greater in the selection system than in any other. y. Small danger from windfall amongst parent tree-. 124 SYLVICULTURE. VI. Small danger from fire, since the humus is kept moist continuously. On the other hand, a fire once broken out is extremely hard to stop. D. Disadvantages: I. Logging operations are very scattering, and hence expensive. The fall of individual, large trees amongst the multitude of their companions is very apt to inflict wounds upon them, through which fungi and insects enter readily. (Cancerous Firs of the Black Forest.) II. A minute network of permanent roads is required. III. The primeval woods, wherever they represent the selection type, show a preponderance of mature and hypermature age classes. Since the type does not allow of the removal of groups of trees at all. and of the removal of individuals only where they are under- laid by an advance growth, the owner of primeval woods adopting this type is forced to bring heavy sacrifici - IV. It is very difficult to regenerate light demanders by this type, where they stand mixed with shade bearers. Paragraph LVII. Regeneration of valuable species from self-sown seed (n. s. r.) with, amongst and into companions of a weedy character. It is a veil-known fact that only a few of the hundreds of seedlings raised (artificially or naturally) l>y the forester have a chance to develop into poles, standards and veterans. Dense thickets, consisting of many saplings, are merely re- quired to maintain the fertility of the soil and to prevent, by natural pruning, the young boles from growing into brushy and branchy specimens ("orchard trees"). For the purpose al -take it i- immaterial, in a sense, whether the thickets consist of a "mob" of shrubby weeds mixed with a few "aristocrats" hailing from valuable species, or whether the entire thicket consists of ••aristocrats." More than that: unless the aristocrat has a value already as a sapling or as a small pole, the " mob " frequently is more conducive to proper soil protection and to proper development of the " aristocracy " into large poles and standards than a purely artistocratic crowd. The danger, of course, prevails continuously lest the aristo- crats might he overtopped and killed by the mob. A. Wherever the mob consists of even-aged seedlings (not of stoolshoots'i of shrubs, that danger i< -mall, shrubs usually exhibit- 1 2.-. S J I- V 1(1 I. T URE. ing a slow rate of height growth (Alder; Dogw 1: Hazel; Witch- hazel: Rhododendron, etc.). Stoolshoots of Bhrubs, on the other hand, frequently grow bo fast, so dense and bo rank that they are sure to overpower an artistocracj of seedlings of even age. If the mob promises to easily obtain the upper hand, then it i- usually wise to delay regeneration until the shrubbage slmw>. at a much later year, signs of a declining growth (Calmia); or else tn wait until the shrubs allow a deadening (Dogwood) -T or to fire the shrubbage in heavy seed years of the aristocratic parentage (Blackjack): or to lumber heavily if the shrubs are sensitive and if the artistocrats are hardy (Striped Maple). Certain weedy shrubs, f. i., Bamboo species, oiler periodically a chance for subdual, viz.. when death overtakes them gregariously during their own seed years. Other shrubs are eagerly eaten (or peeled) by sheep, goats or cattle, and might be brought to submission, in the winter fol- lowing the fruiting of the aristocrats, by heavy pasturage (Mohro- dendron for the benefit of Yellow Poplar). The purpose at stake, in .American Sylviculture, for years to come cannot consist in homogeneous regeneration of aristocrats evenly covering the regeneration area: it can only consist in that form, quality and density of regeneration- usually a partially suc- cessful regeneration— which the forester considers financially most desirable (compare paragraph XLI E). The extirpation of shrubs by pickaxe and pli>\v is usually impossible, unless it can be combined with " taungya." It is often sufficient for increased aristocratic regeneration to break or reduce the humus formed underneath the shrubbage. B. The battle against weed trees trying to propagate their kind in the forest is usually more difficult to win than that against Bhrubs since the progeny of weed trees does not stop to compete with aristocrats after the thicket stage. The forester must care- fully gauge the chances for a final victory— usually a partial vic- tory— of the aristocrats, footing on a knowledge of their relative height growth and their relative -hade endurance. Weed trees mighl be prevented from successful seeding by: I. Deadening or -tump peeling. II. Actual removal (unless resulting in rank stoolshoots). III. Sudden exposure of young progeny to draught or frost. IV. Maintenance of a dense humus, or of a dense leaf canopy. \ . I'a-t urage. 126 X S YLVICL'LTUR E. VI. Stopping all logging operations during seed years of the weed- tree species. VII. Fire. Any of these remedies will answer on a regeneration area pro- vided that it inflicts greater damage on the weed trees than on the aristocrats, and that the success is fully commensurate to the expense. A careful choice of the type of regeneration (cleared, shelter- wood, and advance growth types in compartments, strips, groups or patches) is. however, the best weapon in the hands of the forester against mobbish usurpation. The time may come when the forester will avail himself of plagues of fungi vertebrates and insects in the struggle against weed trees. Obviously, where the logger, followed by tires, removes every vestige of the aristocracy and every chance for its reproduction on deteriorated soil, there the sylvan battle is lost for the forester before it is begun. Frequently in nature's economy and ecology a crop of weed trees (Birches, Cottonwoods) intervenes between two generations of aristocrats. This " rotation of crops " resembles that of agricul- ture, and is hard to explain. Attempted explanations are: Exhaus- tion of soil in mineral matter required by the previous species. Presence of baccilli, bacteria, fungi, insects, etc., inimical to the previous species. Paragrapn LVIII. Pedagogy of the high forest. Forest pedagogy or forest tendance, the second part of the sylviculturists' activity, is of little importance in America at the present time since there are no wood crops at hand which might be profitably tended. Forest protection, usually considered a branch of forestry, is merely a branch of forest tendance. The following operations are here treated under the heading forest tendance : A. Cleaning ) T ,. ^ „, ,. v Indirect lv remunerative acts or investments. B. \\ ceding i C. Improvement cuttings ) Directly remunerative acts yielding D. Thinning f a surplus revenue. E. Pruning ) T ,. _ T, , , ,. L Indirectlv remunerative acts or investments. F. I nderpJantmg The definitions of the terms " cleaning.*" " weeding." " improve- ment cutting" and "thinning" are so indistinct that it is often 127 SYLVICULTURE. difficult t<> differentiate them. Definition- might be based either on the age of the wood crop tended, or on the purpose aimed at, or on the financial side of the tending. Cleaning and weeding are applied for the benefit of very young growth and usually require an investment. Pruning, thinning and improvement cutting arc applied for the benefit of polewoods or thickets. Improvement cuttings and thinnings usually furnish a surplus revenue whilst pruning succeeds only in rare cases to be directly remunerative. Paragraph LIX. Cleaning in high forest. Cleaning may occur during the seedling stage and the small sapling stage. It implies the removal of saplings forming a shrubby advance growth (wolves) ; or the removal of undesirable stoolshoots; or the removal of seedlings and saplings belonging to a less-desirable species competing for space in a young forest. In natural seed regenerations, cleaning is particularly desirable. In- stances: Removing poor coppice shoots which oppress by faster growth the valuable seedlings of Yellow Poplar. Removing Birch, Fire Cherry, Thorns and Briars in young plantations of White Pine, Yellow Pine and Spruce. Where a regeneration area of strong soil has been burned previous to planting, the competition of volunteer growth is frequently such as to make cleaning necessary. The for- ester should take care, however, not to extirpate species now of little value, but possibly of a fair future value. In mixed regeneration, cleaning offers a good means to regulate the proportion of species admixed. The expense incurred for clean- ing must be commensurate to the financial effect of the operation. Instruments used are axe and brush hook; also long-handled clean- ing shears. Paragraph LX. Weeding in high forest. A plant, either herbaceous or ligneous, which has a negative value is a -weed." It might lie a cripple of an otherwise very valuable specie- (fire crippled Chestnul in Pisgah Forest), or it migW belong to a -pecies having no commercial value (Rhododen- dron, Witch-hazel. Black Cum. JIalesia. Chinquapin). Weeding implies the removal of large saplings, poles and trees having the character of weeds. Weeding niin take place before regeneration, or after regeneration has been started. It maj act incidentally a- a preparatory cutting, a seeding cutting or a final 128 S V L V I C ULTU R E. removal. It pays only ;i- an investment since the stuff removed has a negative value. The purpose of weeding might be the extirpation of sup- pressors of young growth: or an exchange of unhealthy crooked, fire-scalded, flat-headed pules for new. vigorous stump sprouts (Spanish and White Oak at Biltmorei. Tho term "weeding" is not found in book- on Sylviculture: it forms, however, under present conditions often one of the most important and most remunerative sylvicultural acts. Weeds are either girdled (deadened) or cut. In the ease of weeds having a diameter of over 6 inches, girdling is often preferable, because cheaper than cutting. More- over, the cutting of broad leaf weeds often tend- to merely replace the weed by weed sprouts. To prevent this. jn the case of sapling weed-, crushing -hears might be used. Some cottonwoods cannot be extirpated by deadening. In that case, the peeling of a strip of bark three feet long at a point two feet above ground i- advisable. Cutting of weeds in August reduces the chances of their recovery. In the Adirondacks, the weeding of Beech overshadowing Spruce might be advisable, because remunera- tive. Paragraph LXI. Improvement cutting in high forest. The term improvement cutting was introduced into Indian prac- tice by Sir Dietrich Brandis. Improvement cuttings are cuttings for revenue and for partial regeneration, combined with weeding. An improvement of cutting extracts from irregular woods: A. Hypermature or dead trees -till of value. B. Misshapen immature trees. ( '. Specie- of minor value. D. Weeds of pole -i/e and tree -ize. Essentia] it is for the character of an improvement cuttingj that it is intended to result, on the ai:i:re;:ate. in a surplus revenue. Cuttings^ on the other hand, which leave the premises in a materially decreased financial value can. oi course, not lie considered as im- provement cuttings. Again, cuttings made at a sacrifice, with a view to an increased prospective value of the forest, are "weedings '* or "cleanings" which must he considered a- investments, like the expenses spent for regeneration. I. The purpose of improvement cuttings is or may be: a. A surplus revenue. 120 SYLVICUL T U R E. b. Improved financial prospects of the remaining crop carried about by : 1. Removal of trees and poles acting as suppressors; 2. Removal of inferior trees and poles acting as competitors; 3. Partial removal of a superstructure on a regeneration area; 4. Removal of less desirable individuals acting as seed-trees. c. The effect of a preparatory cutting, a seed cutting or a final cutting in thin, irregular woods, without removing well-grown mother trees of desirable species. d. Reduced danger from fire, fungi and insects. II. Kinds of improvement cuttings are: a. Improvement cuttings in primeval woods. b. Improvement cuttings in culled woods. c. Improvement cuttings in woods maltreated by fire and pas- turage. III. Marking: Trees and poles to be removed in an improve- ment cutting must be individually marked by the sylviculturist. Generalizing rules for marking cannot be given; each tree or pole must be dealt with according to its individual merits and demerits. The marking by the forester if improvement cuttings is, con- sequently, a timetaking affair. IV. Localities: Irregular, thin woods composed of a multitude of species deserve improvement cuttings. The local market must allow of the— at least partial — utiliza- tion of suppressing, competing, superstructing and less desirable individuals. Paragraph LXII. Thinnings in high forest. Thinnings proper are practicable only in dense and fairly even- aged -roups or woods always under the proviso thai a permanent load system and a nearby market allow of a remunerative outcome of the act. In Pisgah Forest thinnings are out of the question as the woods are thin enough. At Biltmore. thinnings are made where polewoods of Yellow Pine occupy abandoned fields. Up north, from the merely sylvicultural standpoint, thinnings are possible in the Jack Pine wood-, in Balsam thickets, on Black Spruce slopes. in Lodgepole Pine thickets, etc. For many a year to come the American forester will have little opportunity to make any thinnings. A. Purposes of thinnings: I. To develop the log diameter of large saplings and poles at a time at which the log axis has been obtained. 130 SYLVICULTURE. II. To increase the volume increment per acre. III. To increase the quality increment of favorably predestined mess-mates. IV. To reduce the danger from forest fires (dead and dying trees), insect pests and fungi plagues. V. To remove cripples and wolves. VI. Early financial returns. VII. Reduction of investment. VIII. Shortening of the rotation by feeding a lesser number of mess-mates on a relatively larger amount of. food (viz. moisture, heat, light, mineral matter, etc.). IX. Regulation of the relative proportion of species in mixed pole woods. B. The season for thinning depends upon local climate, season- able prices of labor, advisability of peeling and intensity of thin- ning. The season usually selected for thinning in Europe is the late winter when the main cuttings are completed. C. The time for thinning. Thinnings should begin -in the late thicket stage and should be repeated, to begin with, in five-year intervals, say from the year thirty to sixty. Thereafter the inter- vals are increased up to the year eighty or ninety. A preparatory cutting, although conducted like thinning, is no thinning, since its purpose is regeneration. Thinnings stop at the end of the pole stage. Where poles are non-salable, for instance, in European mountain districts and almost everywhere in America (excepting Biltmore Estate), thinnings cannot be made. D. The material supplied by thinning may consist of firewood, pulp wood, mine props, fence posts, telephone poles, hop poles, hoop poles, tool handles, bolts for spokes, locust pins, tannin wood. etc. In European practice the number of cubic feet obtained by thin- nings during the course of a rotation per acre equals one-quarter or one-half of the number of cubic feet obtained by the final cut. Heavy thinnings, as practiced in Denmark, are said to yield as many cubic feet in the aggregate of a rotation as the final cut. The tool used for thinning is invariably the axe. E. Kinds of thinnings: The old doctrine was: "Thin early, frequently, moderately! " This rule has been gradually abandoned during the past twenty years. The method of thinning naturally differs according to the purpose of it. William Schlich distinguished between quality thin- nings, made to improve the timber quality of the trees left; and quantity thinnings meant to result in the maximum production of wood fibre per acre per annum. 131 SI I. \ ECU LTD 15 E. If left alone, a dense thickel grows slowly only, the Eood being subdivided among a large number of messmates. Toward the beginning of forestry, sylviculturists were satisfied with thinnings burying the dead and moribund trees. Later on, thinnings were extended into the suppressed classes. The European experiment stations are now deeply engaged in working out the "besl " method of thinning. Obviously, no method can be best for all sorts of species and for all sorts of local condition-. 1. The experimenl stations distinguish between: Grade 1. Light thinnings, removing the dead or dying. Grade 2. .Moderate thinnings, removing the dean, dying and suppressed. Qxade :'>. Heavy thinnings, removing also the condominating tf'des, or such of them which are not absolutely essential tor the maintenance of the main leaf canopy overhead. (hade 4. Very strong thinnings, placing a limited number of dominating and predominating trees in a free position. Results so far published allot the maximum volume production (exclusive of branches) per acre to Grade 3. All these four grades might be characterized as "thinnings from below" (Eclaircies par le has). French silviculturists are advocating, on the other hand, "thin- nings from above" (Eclaircies par le haut). The Frenchmen, as a matter of principle, leave alone the sup- pressed lower stems, protecting by them the quality of the -oil as well as the clearness of boles within the predestined class, hi addition, they relieve tic ten-ion. friction and struggle for food amongst the dominators by culling out the worst developed domina- tors, or a percentage of those dominators which stand too close together, and which have, consequently, one-sided crown-. The objection to the French method lies in the following points- a. Material without increment is left on the ground. b. Weaklings and dying tree- left increase the dangers threat- ening i he forest. c. Greater difficulty in marking tree- to be removed. However, where quality increment is at stake. 1 he French method seems highly advisable. III. Radically differenl from the system- of thinnings hereto- fore prevailing are the revolutionary views proffered by Borggreve, th,. "Bryan amongst European sylviculturists. Borggreve thinnings interfere or remove only the predominators and dominators the biggesi poles— closest to the besl log size. 132 S YLYR I LTURE. Such thinnings begin only at the year sixty of a woodlot; they withdraw every ten years the largest one-seventh of the stems containing about one-quarter of the total volume. Of course, high and early revenue is secured by such practice. On the other hand, the trees removed are those growing at the besl rate of interest. (From the sixtieth year on 00' c of annual accretion in a woodlot TsTupplied by the 40 fj [in number] of the largest trees y. The advisability of a Borggreye thinning largely depends on the reproductive power of a wood thus " maltreated." In the case of Yellow Pine and on poor soil, the reproductive power of a wood seems too small to allow of speedy repletion of the growing stock and of its leaf canopy. Much "food" goes to waste after Borg- greve thinnings. In the case of White Pine and Spruce, the danger from storm and sleet after Borggreve thinnings must be badly dreaded. IV. Wagener, at the year twenty-five of a forest, makes a thinning called " crown-free-cutting." surrounding the crown of each predestined tree with an air space two and one-half feet wide. Dominating trees left should stand seven yards apart after the Wagener thinning. Suppressed trees are not interfered with. Such cuttings are much heavier than Borggreve's. At the year twenty- five the bole of the dominators 1- not fully developed. Underplant- ing takes place at the same time. The dominators left stand in an orchard-like position and show a very rapid diameter growth. Only one log or so is expected to 1 btained from the bole; it is obtained. however, within an extremely short rotation. Obviously, for coniferous wood- exposed to storm and of poor quality if wide ringed, the Wagener system is out of the question, lhe Wagener thinnings, unless they result in a heavy growth of adventitious branches, might be used to advantage for Black Wal- nut, Black Cherry and Oaks. V. In mixed forests such species as reach maturity during the pole stage might be removed by way of thinnings; f. i.. Locust and Sassafras from a pole wood of Yellow Poplar; Hickory when reach- ing spoke bolt size from a mixture with Oaks; Chestnut when reach- ing telephone pole size from a mixture with Oaks, Black Gum and Yellow Poplar. Paragraph LXIII. Pruning in high forest. ,s\ A. The object at stake might be: I. Production of logs free from knots,— especially free from dead knots. Live or sound knots measuring one and one-quarter 133 SYLVICUL T U R E. inches in diameter affect the lumber price only slightly. The pre- vention of dead knots is, therefore, most important. No topshoot is formed without side shoots, and no section of a tree bole is free from branches and free from branch knots. Hence the advisa- bility of pruning the boles of such species which develop branches of large diameter and of great persistence when dead. Branches (excepting adventitious branches) invariably start from the central core. II. Increased height growth. ill. The production of cylindrical boles of high form figure (Pressler's law of bole formation). Obviously, " li " and "ill" are obtained only by removing live branches. IV. The reduction of the shade falling on a young, promising undergrowth. V. The reduction of danger from fire in coniferous woods close to public roads. B. Species: Hardwoods suffer less from the removal of green branches than softwoods. Green branches of over five inches in diameter should not be removed at all, except in case " IV,"' owing to the certainty of subsequent disease. Oak heals the wound inflicted by pruning best; Ash is likely to split; Maple is slow in closing a wound; Birch soon shows dis- ease; Yellow Pine covers the wound quickly with rosin. C. Actual European practice: The practice restricts pruning to the case " I " and within case "I" to: I. Dead branches. II. Polewoods forty years to sixty years old. III. Limited numbers of poles (say 100) per acre, namely, to the specimens presumably predestined to reach the end of the rotation. Pruning extends to a height reaching up to forty feet, is done by help of ladders, of a climbing apparatus (not climbing irons) or of saws attached to very long poles. The best saw is the "Alers " construction. In France, sharp, curved blades are preferred to saws, since they produce a smoother cut. The branch is cut off as close to the bole as possible. Large branches are cut off in sections to prevent the bole from being scarred. In the case of broad-leafed species and in the case of live branches, large wounds are always tarred. Tarring in spring is impossible. 134 SYLVICULTURE. Expense at Biltmore for pruning Yellow Pine to a height of 16 feet is two cents per tree. The best months for pruning are the months at which the sap is down. The advisability of pruning depends largely on the prospective price — difference between clear lumber and knotty lumber. Pruning at a late date, say 20 years before cutting, is of no use. Theoretically it is best to remove dead branches in the year of their death. Where pruning is practiced, natural pruning produced by dense planting and hence dense planting itself might be spared, a proposi- tion which cannot be generally indorsed. Literature: Translation of DeCourval by Massachusetts For- estry Association. Paragraph LXIV. Underplanting in high forest. An upper story of high forest might be underplanted during the pole stage either artificially or by natural seed regeneration. In the latter case, weed species may answer the purpose. Underplant- ing may improve the timber quality of the upper growth. It usually does improve the productiveness of the soil. Frequently the purpose at stake in underplanting is that of fully utilizing the productive capacity of the soil and of the atmos- phere which is not entirely used by the upper story of growth. In that case, underplanting cannot be considered as a method of forest pedagogy. A. The species to be underplanted are, notably, light demanders; for instance, Yellow Pines; Oaks; Hickories; Larches; Yellow Poplar, etc. In the primeval woods, Long leaf Pine, Yellow Pine, Yellow Poplar, etc., show a natural undergrowth. In practice, the wood to be underplanted is 40 to 60 years old. Heavy " thinnings from below " precede underplanting. B. The species used for artificial underplanting are shade bearers and, if possible, soil improvers, notably Beech, Hard Maple, Fir, Lawson's Cypress, White Pine, Chestnut, Hemlock, etc. Spruce is now disliked for underplanting, since it unfavorably affects the growth of the upper story. Seedlings one or two years old are commonly used for underplanting. Dogwood, Black Gum, Witch Hazel, Chinquapin, Witch Hopple, possibly Kalmia and Rhododendron might be used for underplanting where mere soil protection is desired. The primeval hardwoods of the Alleghanies are frequently and densely underplanted with a low jungle formed by Ericaceae. 135 S VLVICULTUR E. Paragraph LXV. Key to the Forms of High Forest. That general condition of a foresl is termed its " sylviculture,! I'd] in "" which is brought about l>y its type or types of pasl regenera- tion, hence by its display of age classes and by the arrangement of the species exhibited. The treatmenl allotted to the "form" by the forester, provided that it is a systematic treatment, is termed its " sylviculural system." The multitude <>f forms found in primeval nature is innumer- able, since the *' molds " from which the forms are cast, vary indefinitely with every wrinkle of the topography and every varia- tion of the climate. Man's interference has tended— at least temporarily — to further increase the multitude of forms. It is a hard task to differentiate amongst this huge collection of forms and to arrange the collection into " orders," " families," "' genera " and " species " composing it. A priori, two great groups of forms might he singled out. namely "primeval forms" the product of unbiased nature and "second growth forms,' the product of nature influenced by man's interference. This human interference might have been of a char- acter utterly disregarding sylviculture,] ends (••culled forms"); or human ait might have tried, successfully or unsuccessfully, to lend a helping hand ("cultured forms"). The manner in which the various age classes of the foresi are mixed within the "orders of forms" is of paramount interest. From this manner of mixing depend: I. The manner and the possibility of remunerative lumbering. IL The type method and the expense of regeneration and pedagogy. III. The dangers from insects, fungi, lire, storm, etc.. threaten- ing the forest. The functions of the mixture are BO all-important in forestry, that the synthesis of the age-classes must serve as a main criterion in the construction of a key to the sylviculture,] form-. It must not he forgotten, however, that age differences of. say. 20 years are verj conspicuous during the seedling, sapling and pole stage of the forest ; whilsi the keenest eye cannot detect these same diffrences in an old tree forest. In mixed forests exhibiting a large variety of species the analysis of the form presents particular difficulties. Such is the 13G 1. percivendible 2. multivendible 3. omniveriililile S YLVICULTUB E. case by far more frequently in primeval than in culled or cultured high forest. Sometimes a distinct form of a minor, scattering species appears to be "grafted" upon a distinct form of one or several major, gregarious species ("grafted forms"). Where two distinct forms in mixture occupy more equal shares (not minor and major shares) in the aggregate display, we may speak of "wedded forms.'' "Husband and wife, though distincj individuals, unite for a life in a household of their own." Synopsis of "Forms of High Forest." A. Primeval forms of high forest. a. Primeval selection form. b. Primeval group form. c. Primeval compartment fori d. Primeval standard form. B. Culled forms of high forest. a. Culled selection form. b. Culled group form. l- axe culled e. Culled compartment form. d. Culled standard form. 2' fire culled C. Cultured forms of high forest. a. Evenaged main forms, emanating from 1. cleared compartment of type of a. >. r. 2. short time shelter wood compartment type of n. s. r. 3. planting 4. underplanting b. Unevenaged main forms, emanating from 5. long time shelterwood compartment type "f n. s. r. 6. strip type 7. group type 8. selection type c. Auxiliary forms. 9. standard form 10. two storied high forest. A. Primeval forms of high forest. I. Characteristic for all primeval forms is a relative preponder- ance of the hypermature age-classes (veterans); a relatively deficiency of the youngest age-classes (seedlings, saplings and poles); the presence of a large number of dead, decaying or unsound speci- mens only temporarily excelled in the "culled forms;" a large number of dead corpses of trees spread flat on the ground; irregular confines of the parts composing the aggregates; irregular composi- tion of such parts by age-classes and species, many of which may be weeds; usually a heavy layer of humus on the ground; usually 137 SYLVICULTURE. the presence of a few strikingly large and spotless trees overtower- ing their neighbors; absolute lack of permanent means of trans- portation. II. Subdivision of primeval forms of high forest. According to the relative share held by species of " weed trees " in the mixture of species composing them, the primeval forests might be subdivided into pauci, multi and omnivendible forests. Primeval woods, in which only 10% of the timber species command a value, might be called " pauci vendible "; at 50%, the term " multivendible " and at approximately 100%, the term "omnivend- ible " might be applied. The vendibility of the members composing the forest, whilst it controls the possibility and the manner of its sylvicultural man- agement, does not influence, however, the actual display of the forest in the slightest degree. It will be best, consequently, to subjoin the viewpoint of vendibility to the viewpoint of actual composition of the forest as displayed in the size of its composing parts — notably of its age- classes. Thus we arrive at : a. A selection form, where the age-classes raised are mixed by trees or small patches — a very uneven-aged form; b. A group form, where the age-classes raised are segregated in groups occupying from one-tenth to four acres; c. A compartment form, where the age-classes raised are segre- gated in large, coherent areas (coves, slopes) covering from twenty to one hundred acres — a very evenaged form of forest. The epideta " paucivendible," "multivendible" and "omnivend- ible " added to the terms " selection form," " group form " and "compartment form" readily explain, in crude lines, the sylvi- cultural as well as the economic display of a primeval forest. The groups or the compartments often show a sprinkling of huge trees known as " standards," having a much higher age and frequently belonging to a species different from that or those form- ing the main growing stock. Instances are: Yellow Poplar standards in Beech compartments; White Pine standards in Balsam compartments; Yellow Pine standards in Oak groups; Cuban Pine standards in Cuban Pine groups; Long-leaf Pine standards in Cuban Pine groups. Naturally, where the standards belong to several age-classes and 138 SYLVICULTURE. do not form a distinct age-class by themselves, we merely meet a selection form. Standards in primeval woods are frequent enough to call for the singling out of a fourth form, namely: d. A standard form, which might be again subdivided into: A form of standards over groups; A form of standards over compartments. A variety of the latter subform found in the Chaparal thickets of California and in the Calmia thickets of North Carolina might be termed " form of standards over paucivendible compartments." The two-storied high forest is often formed by two or more distinct species appearing in distinct forms. It had better be con- sidered as a combination of forms, one form being grafted upon another (f. i., multivendible compartments of Douglas Fir grafted upon the paucivendible selection form of Hemlock) ; or one form being wedded with another (f. i., multivendible group form of Long-leaf Pine wedded with paucivendible compartments of Black Jack Oak). The term " two-storied high forest " properly applies only to a permanent combination of two tiers of trees (representing one or more species), each tier emanating from regeneration of the compartment type of n. s. r. It is a compartment form wedded with a compartment form. III. Treatment of primeval forests: The only treatment required i- of a protective, not of a sylvi- eultural character. As long as the forest retains its primeval display, unhampered by human interference, the regeneration of the primeval selection form is of the cleared, shelterwood or advance growth selection type; the regeneration of the primeval group form is of the cleared or advance growth group type: and the regeneration of the primeval compartment form is usually of the cleared compartment type. Obviously, with the beginning of logging operations the " primeval forms " are gradually, piece by piece, changed into '• culled forms." the display of which largely depends on vendi- bility and on fires. Rarely only the primeval forest enters at once or directly into a cultured form (Pisgah Forest of the Biltmore Estate; Xe-ha-sa-ne park; government forests in Galizia) without passing through the stage of " culled form. In the large majority of cases, the primeval woods pass through " culled forms " into " cultured forms," in the course of generations of men and of trees. 139 SYLVK l I. I l RE. I!. Culled forma of high forest: I. Characteristic for the culled forms of high forest is the aDsence of mature nr maturing trees belonging to a desirable species; the preponderance of weeds, unsound trees, undesirable species and of trees and poles badly crippled by the logging operations. Only diseased trees or relative small trees of the desirable species are left tO seed the ground. Advance growth is invariably spoiled where the trees are omni- veinlilile or multivendible. Characteristic for the culled forms is. further, the presence of large amounts of debris and of a parched humus. A- a rule, the culled forms show death and scars due to forest fires. Frequently, the culled forest displays an entirely new assort- ment of the species composing it. the previously prevailing species having been removed by logging. It is more "mobbish" than the primeval forest. II. Subdivisions of culled forms of high forest: The culled forest is usually more uniform than the primeval forest from which it emanates, owing to the uniform character of the logging operations. Still, the compartment form, group form and selection form originally exhibited are usually retained. In the compartment form and in the group form a few worth- less trees or veterans left standing and continuing to live fre- quent lv remind on the "form of standards in high forest" or on the "form of underplanted high forest." (Compare C, II, b, of the same paragraph.) III. Treatment of the culled high forest : Where fires are kept out, the chances for seed regeneration are good — unusually g I— owing to the condition of the seed-bed and to the unlimited food supply available for the seedlings. In the case of Yellow Pines, light fires seem even helpful to n. s. r. Since the valuable species form, however, the minority amongst the seed-trees, the worthless and less valuable kinds usually prevail in the young growth formed after culling. Cleaning and weeding are required to improve the prospects of the minority composed of noble species. Besides, improvement cuttings are indicated in the culled forms: ' The culled form is the form requiring improvement cuttings." The "aristocrats" frequently return only to the regeneration area after a score or two of years, the rash "mob" then acting -.1- nurse-trees or as ushers. 140 S Y L VI C I L T L l; K. Where heavy and extensive fires have swept the culled forest originally consisting of exacting species, patient waiting alone ran secure conditions mure favorable to artistocratic regeneration. Fires frequently convert a high forest of hardwoods into a coppice forest. The younger age-classes suffer more from fire than the older age-classes. A tire-swept, culled forest is deficient, at least tem- porarily, in seedlings, saplings and small poles. A few years after a tire, the culled forest often displays the feature, of the under- planted form of high forest (Par. LXV. C. II. b.) or of the coppice- under-standard form (Par. LXXIIIi. I - I ultured forms of high forest: I. Characteristic for the cultured forms 0f high fores! is great uniformity; lack of hypermature, unsound and misshapen aristo- crats; lack of weed-tree- lack of coppice shoots; complete cover overhead; multi- or omni- vendibility; permanent means of trans- portation. The cultured forest does not require weeding or improvement cuttings for the reason that cleanings and early thinnings have prevented the development of weed-trees and wolf-trees, whilst the hypermature veteran has been removed long ago. If the culled form is "the form of improvement cuttings," the cultured form might he termed "the form of thinnings." " II. Subdivision of cultured high forest: a. .Main cultured forms of high foresl : 1. Even-aged cultured forms, when the age-classes mixed within a compartment differ by up to 25 years. aa. Form emanating from the cleared compartment type of n. s. r. bb. Form emanating from the short-time shelterwood compart- ment type of „. s. v.. the periods 0f regeneration not exceeding 25 year-. cc. Form raised by planting seeds or seedlings over whole compartment-. dd. Form raised by underplanting seeds or seedlings over whole compartments, followed by (gradual) removal of the supef- structing tree- within less than 2."> year-. ■2. Uneven-aged cultured forms, when the age-classes mixed within a compartment differ by over lV) year-. aa. Form emanating from the long-time-fcheiterwood compart- ment type of n. s. r. bb. Form emanating from -trip type-, either restoeked by n. -. r. or by planting. 141 SILVICULTURE. cc Form emanating from group types of n. B. r., or from planted groups. da. Form emanating from selection types of n. s. r. b. Auxiliary cultured forms of high forest: aa. Form of standards in high forest, when a limited number of trees are left to grow amongst and with the young growth for a longer or shorter number of yen-. The standards might be left either in scattering groups or individually scattered over the second growth. In the latter case, only Btorm-firm species will answer. It is wise to leave the stand- ards in the proximity of roads so as to allow their removal without inflicting damage on the young growth. Species well adapted for standards arc: yellow Pines, Larches. White Oaks, Yellow Poplar, Black Locust, Hickory. Walnut. Black Cherry. Shade-bearers and flat-rooted species will not answer the purpose. It is unwise to leave standards unprepared by preceding cuttings for the life in the open. Standards set suddenly free will cover themselves rapidly with adventitious branches, will grow stag- headed, will suffer from storm and sleet, and will die without yield- ing the results for which they were left. Where the standards shade the young growth too badly, it may be necessary to remove their lower live branches. The number of standards left per acre does not usually exceed 2.1. Very good soil and short rotations allow of an increased num- ber. Standards may he. but need not be, of the same species which forms the undergrowth. Where the standards do not belong, approximately, to one and the same age-class, there the standard form bastardizes with the uneven-aged forms emanating from the group-type or from the selection type of n. s. r. bb. Form of two-storied high forest, when an upper and a lower leaf canopy is maintained in distinctly separate tiers. Species adapted to form the lower leaf canopy are: Beech, Hard Maple, Black Gum, Firs, Hemlocks. The species in the upper story had better have a light-demanding character. The form is created by raising a polewood (even-aged) of Yellow Pine. Oak, Hickory, Larch, etc.; by early and heavy thinnings from below; by very Heavy thinnings after the completion of the principal height growth (year forty to sixty); and by planting at the same time either seeds or preferably seedlings of shade-bearing1 species. Should the undergrowth catch up with the upper growth, either the one •or the other must be removed. The undergrowth preserves the fer- 142 s Y L VICULTURE. tility of the soil by thorough shading, by the formation of a mixed humus and by increased leaf-fall. It improves the bole- quality of the upper growth, the crowns of the lower growth holding the boles of the upper in close embrace. In addition, it prevents any part of the timber-producing factors of the locality (atmosphere, light, moisture, soil) from lying unutilized. Usually the undergrowth produces firewood, the upper growth timber. The so-called " Seebach's modified high forest " has Beech in the upper as well as in the lower story. The lower story is obtained from self-sown seed of the upper story after very heavy thinning. Under and upper growth are finally utilized in the same year or in the same period of years. III. Treatment of cultured high forest. Regeneration in the cultured form of high forest takes place in any of the types of n. s. r., or by planting seed- and seedlings. As a rule, natural regeneration is now combined with partial plant- ing. Cleaning and thinning are usually idicated, whilst, as stated, weeding and improvement cutting are not required. Paragraph LXVI. Critical remarks on the forms of high forest. A. Attitude of the investor: It is almost amusing to observe the difference of attitudes which the statesman, the lumberman and the forester show with respect to the terms "primeval." "culled ' and "cultured" forests. Still, all of these forests arc justifiable, at least temporarily. and usually justified by the economic conditions evolving them. I. The primeval forest seems to be the "forest in economic stagnation." Still, fortunes haA-e been carved by many investors, buying and retaining primeval forests for their own benefit and incidentally for the benefit of later generations of men. With every parcel of primeval forest destroyed, the value of the balance left increases in estimation and in actual usefulness. Sylviculturally, no forest requires a more minute and more painstaking treatment than the primeval forest, when its conversion into cultured forest is at stake. Still, the small price obtainable for its products defies any attempt at a remunerative outcome of heavy sylvicultural outlays. What is the use of safeguarding or producing a second growth, by sylvicultural acts, which is devoid of any prospective value, or which is of a value inferior to the expense required to safeguard it or to produce it ? Tims, sylviculturally as well as financially it seems very fre- quently best to leave the primeval wood unattended, unregenerated, unconverted, for the time being. 143 S1LVI.C1 I.TI i; E. II. The culled foresl usually exists in Localities where timber has a higher value than in the primeval backwoods. Indeed, where the culling of the forest has made great progress in a state or in a county, there the culled foresl is getting rapidly ripe for sylviculture! treatment. Eeavy culling merely proves a high range oi stumpage prices, fostered l>y a near-by market and by good mean- of transportation. Wnere the foresl has been culled onlj of decidedly mature trees, there the chances for good results are bright, financially as well as s\ U iculturally. fhe attitude which the owner of culled forests adopts towards sylviculturaJ investments, necessarily depends on a diagnosis of the tut nre of the lumber industry appealing to him. III. The cultured forest is still a rarity in the United Stales. and will continue to he a rarity during our lifetime. Imagine for a moment, that the famous Black forest of Ger- many were suddenly transferred, with its fine Spruce woods, its splendid roads and its skilled laborers, into the heart of the Adi- rondack*! Would it be wise, financially, to continue its sylvieul- tural treatment as inaugurated in Germany? It certainly would; the logs salable in the Black Forest are also salable in the Adirondacks at a good profit. And a network of splendid roads would tend to cheapen transportation by exactly that many cents per standard, which the stumpage itself would gain per standard. On the other hand, that same Black forest transferred to the Pacific coast — say into the Olympic mountains — would certainly prove a financial ami therefore a sylviculturaJ failure. The better it pays to cull the forest, the closer at hand is the time of the cultured forest. It must he kepi in mind, however, that the change from the culled to the cultured forest requires, aside from a market for the products obtained and from the willingness of the owner to embark ii: sylviculturaJ investments. a. Investments in permaneni mean- of transportation; b. Relative safety from foresl lire-: C Time. Wherever the woods emerge ill a decrepit condition from the primeval stage after reckless lumbering, heavy fires, unlimited pasturage, there the adoption of a system will he found necessary alter scores of year- breaking entirely with the past and raising. 1 It S Y L V I C U L T I" R E. after thorough destruction of the past growth, by artificial means a new crop of valuable species. Large, continuous clearings badly resist reforestation like the prairies, although on a smaller scale. Extensive, even-aged woods form " incubators *' for disastrous diseases; suffer from snow, storm, drought, and frost. On the other hand, their management is greatly facilitated, so that reinforcing, cleaning, thinning, regeneration and utilization are much cheapened. B. Selection of form by the forester. I. The primevar»forms of high forest found by the forester u>uallv appear unretainable. Whatever the case be, the first stroke of the axe is sure to remove the mature and hyper-mature trees, the preponderance of which belongs to the character of any primeval form. However, when transforming primeval woods into cultured woods, the forester should endeavor to retain as much as possible the form originally sanctioned by nature. Such retention i- the safest way to sylvicultural success. Still, it usually necessitates heavy investments for permanent means of transportation, and where the owner is unwilling to make them, cuttings by com- partments or by strips are required, winch in turn lead to the adoption of the advance growth type, shelterwood type, or cleared type of n. s. r. The -trip form, a- mentioned elsewhere, seems to be particu- larly well adapted to meet American need-. IT. The culled forms of high forest must lie retained by the forester in the compartment, group or selection form first en- countered, unless the culling ha- been particularly light. Improve- ment cuttings are not apt to change the form of the forest. Where artificial reinforcing is resorted to, the forest will gradually develop even-aged form-. When after heavy culling the average growing -lock per acre is badly reduced, then forms allowing of short rotation- are indicated, so especially selection forms ami standard form-. Frequently in such cases, the high forest is aban- doned, and the coppice forest is resorted to. III. In the cultured forms, the trend of the time- favors uneven-aged forms, notably mixed group forms and narrow- -trip forms, on account of greater safety. Heavy •"thinnings from above" are in vogue, frequently in connection with underplanting lor underseeding by n. s. r.). Regeneration is effected either by planting compartments, -trips and groups, with or without a shelterwood overhead, or by the various types of n. s. r. 143 SYLVICULTURE. Where the deficiency of the growing stock lends to the. adoption of -lioit rotations, standard forms, two-storied forms, underplanted forms or coppice-under-standard forms must be resorted to. In the latter case, of course, the high forest form is thrown overheard. Paragraph LXVII. High Forest by Species. A. Oaks: The Oaks rarely appear in pure stands. I. Primeval woods. The primeval high forest exhibits the Oak: a. As the lower story planted in groups or compartments under- neath an upper story of Long-leaf Pine, Loblolly Pine, Short-leaf I'm.' : 1). In small pure groups sprinkled amongst the Bald Cypress and Red Gum of the southern hummocks; c. In the selection form grafted upon compartments of high forest of other hardwoods, notably of Chestnut, Hickory, Gum (Ten.); or grafted on compartments of Kalmia, Rhododendron, Chinquapin (X. C). d. In pure even-aged groups (prairie borders). e. In selection forests mixed with many other hardwoods also in -election form. II. Culled high forests: The culled forest of oak is usually axe-culled as well as fire-culled, thus partly losing its character as a high forest. The n. s. r. of White Oak. Chestnut Oak and Scarlet Oak at Biltmore proceeds selectionwise or in compartments, notably so on Indian fields in the Pink-beds; underneath Chestnut. Maples, and Oaks on Poplar hill; mixed with Hickory on the lower west slope of Avei \ s creek and so on. The Oaks endure shade well for a long number of years, trail- ing on the ground until freed from superstructure. Coccinea three years old i- only five inches high, being clipped back continuously by insufficient lignification of its top-shoots. Even-aged polewoods of Oak are found all over the Blue Ridge and tin' Piedmont Plateau. Examination will usually prove them to be lire-culled coppice formed by the lire-killed, younger age classes of primeval woods (seedlings, saplings and small poles). III. Cultured high forests. The cultured high forest at Biltmore is still in statu nascendi, in the plantations on abandoned fields as well as in the n. s. r.'s of comp. L02 (compartment type), the slopes of Ducker Mountain, etc. The growth of the Oaks during early youth is very slow. The soil is usually so badly hardened as to require artificial help to 146 S Y L V I C U LITE E. n. s. r. Oak seedlings and saplings are rare in Pisgah Forest (excepting 3-year-old Scarlet Oaks). The Oaks mingle with the Short-leaf Pine everywhere as an undergrowth started. by n. s. r.. or as a companion-growth in Pine polewoods. Here too, however, the fires have usually converted seedlings and saplings into stoolshoots. In the S. E., regeneration under shelter-wood or in advance of logging (by the group type or by the compartment type) seems advisable. In the mixture with the Oaks should be encouraged: Maples, Black Gums, Pines (White Pine grows and retain- its branches for a long time in the mixture). Chestnut. Hickory. "Walnut. Record of seed years at Biltmore: White Oak: good in L899. Post Oak: in 1900 the only mast-bearing oak. Black Oak: splendid, full mast year in 1901 in all situations. Spanish Oak: splendid, full mast year in 1901. Chestnut Oak: promises well in 1904. B. Chestnuts: I. Primeval fore-t - : Actually primeval forests of Chestnut seem very rare. The (best nut woods of the Appalachians have been ransacked by fires for many decade- of years. The n. s. r. seems to have been of the selection type. Chestnut seems to avoid limestone-soil and ceases to occur where limestone appears (Ky; Ten.). II. Culled high forests: The fire-culled forest shows an absolute lack of seedlings, sap- lings and poles. The axe-culled forest consists merely of coppice. Trees beset with dead branches are invariably wormy (Lymexylon). ,beed years seem to be getting scarce, possibly under the influ- ence of fires, to judge from the reports of mountaineers. The old trees are frequently stagheaded and fail to successfully regenerate their kind. Seedlings one year old are about eight inches high, when found in the woods. They appear individually scattering and not in groups. III. Cultured high forests: The cultured forest usually has the form of coppice or coppice- under-standards. Plantations in the United States are made more for fruit-growing than for timber-growing. The abandoned fields at Biltmore seem too dry for successful development. Chestnuts 147 SI I. \ I c ULTUE K. planted as an undergrowth below Oak and Pine have done poorly, owing to the ravages of squirrels. The poles and trees seem to badly resenl any sudden inter' ference with the leaf canopy and with tin- humus. Thinnings and cuttings in the shelters 1 system should be Light. The competition of stoolshoots invariably formed after cuttings reduces the prospects of seedlings simultaneously obtained. Stool- shoots cannot be entirely prevented by deadening previous to cutting. Cnestnul produces a splendid humus and is an excellent com- panion £or Oak.-. Hickories, Walnut. Black Cherry, Ash and Yellow Poplar; also for White Pine and Hemlock. It regenerates in mixture with Yellow Poplar on small abandoned fields of Pisgah Forest to a limited degree. Seed years: Fairly good mast in 1898. On the mountain tops, where Chestnut stands in an orchard-like position, seed occurs annually. C. Hickories: I. Primeval forest : The Hickories appear regenerated in the selection type and in the group type. II. Culled high forest: The Hickories suffer badly from fires. Fires do not kill the poles, but cause the butts to bursl subject- ing them to decay. Weeding and heavy improvement cuttings are beneficial. III. Cultured high forest: From the early pole stage on, the crowns should be placed in a tree position so as to cause the formation of wide rings. At Biltmore, the boles are apt to be very branchy, the tough limbs being very persistent. In the mountains, on stronger soil, the boles clear themselves readily. The Hickories regenerate by n. s. r. in abandoned fields in mixture with Black Gum, Sassafras, iellow Poplar, Locust. Oaks, etc. In the plantations on abandoned fields at Biltmore, Bitternut al.me promises to be successful. The other species are badly handi- capped by rodents and seem to be of very slow growth. The Hickories seem to be immune from damage by frost in their native country; not so in Germany. Seed years are not of record. D. Walnut-: 1 is S YLVICULTUK E. I. Primeval forests: The Walnuts appear in the primeval woods invariably in mix- ture with other species, on strong soil, seemingly regenerated by the selection type. II. Culled high forests: The Walnuts seem remarkably fireproof from the early pole stage on. Seed regeneration is rare in the woods, but more fre- quent on old deadenings close to habitations, where the squirrels were held in check. III. Cultured high forests: Without artificial help. n. s. r. seems very problematic. Under any circumstances, the rodents must he kept off. Plantations are frequently found and do very well in early youth, unless the soil is badly hardened and impoverished. The siands should he dense, whether pure or mixed with Oaks etc., so as to produce clean boles. Plantations seem to fail in the close proximity of old trees. Tlie plantations at Biltmore have failed invariably in the woods, owing to the ravages of squirrels; toungya on leased farms shows poor success, owing to the unreliability of the lessees; plantations of seedlings three year's old tailed badly; plantations of yearlings freeze to the ground annually on all slopes; plantations of nuts on small fields have done very well, where the ground was good; and the change from good to bad. brought about by the undula- tions of the soil, is very marked. Failures on i r s,,i] are now doctored up by a nursegrowth of Yellow Pines. — a remedy promis- ing SOine success. E. Beech: I. The primeval forest exhibits the compartment, group and selection type of u. s. r. The humus is usually very heavy and so moist thai fires have a poor chance to spread. In the South, at lower altitudes.. Beech merely fringes the river hanks. II. The culled high forest shows many stump sprouts, stumps three feet high forming the sproilts on the top of the stump. In the Blue (Irass Region, huge park trees are frequently found in a dense undergrowth of seedlings and saplings. Here the more valuable species have been culled out many years ago. and the Beech is left in exclusive possession of the soil. III. The cultured high forests of Beech are easily regenerated in the shelterwood- compartment type. The selection type yields branchy boles. Beech is the best companion imaginable for faster- 140 SYLVICULTURE. growing species; is splendidly qualified for an underwood planted beneath aristocratic species; is exacting and sensitive. Plantations on abandoned fields are out of the question, except at high altitudes. No seed years are of record at Biltmore. The trees on the river banks fruit annually. F. Bass wood: I. Primeval forests: In the Lake States and in the Alleghanies, Basswood exhibits the form emanating from the selection type of n. s. r., grafted on the compartment type of White Pine, or of Hard .Maple, or else mixed with Hard Maple, Elm, Chestnut, Red Oak, Yellow Poplar. II. Culled high forests: The regeneration follows the selection type; fires clip the seed- lings and saplings; larger poles and trees seem to withstand well. Hi. Cultured high forests: Young seedlings develop very slowly : they are less sensitive than their shade-endurance would indicate. Pure forests are found only in Russia. Seedlings planted at Biltmore on old fields, of strong quali- ties, have hesitated to develop for six years, growing bushy and crooked; in 1904. they promise good results. Linden underplanted below Oaks and Chestnuts after moderate chinning on North slopes seems to answer admirably, forming long and straight, although overhanging topshoots. Seedyears in Pisgah Forest occur annually. The majority of the seeds, however, seem to drop immature. (i. Yellow Poplar: I. Primeval forests: Yellow Poplar appears invariably in the selection type, or in the form of standards. II. Culled high forests: IIm' species attempts unceasingly to propagate its kind by n. s. r. The heavier the destruction by the axe, the better are its chances for success. Fires, on the other hand, annihilate the -<■<■,!- lings and check the chances for regeneration thereafter, owing to a rank growth of weeds following the fires. In Pisgah Forest, seed- lings and saplings were entirely lacking, until fires were stopped. The regeneration on old fields, on the other hand, is prolific and easy. Cattle press the seeds into the ground and check the competing weeds. Sassafras, Locust and Pine frequently act as 150 SYLVICULTURE. ushers. The old fields are usually protected from fire by the owners wishing to protect their fences. ]\o known species prunes itself as readily from branches as Yellow Poplar, the dead branches popping off without leaving any stumps. III. Cultured high forests: No species at Biltmore is as easily regenerated by n. s. r. as Yellow Poplar. In Biltmore Forest, the group type is readily carried through with the help of three or four mother-trees to the acre. The other companions of the mother trees, notably Oaks and Chestnuts, are gradually cut away; spreading Dogwoods are deadened to prevent them from forming stoolshoots. In Pisgah Forest, regeneration is helped by preceding pasturage (especially in early spring, before the seeds of Poplar germinate) and by weeding following in the wake of n. s. r. The seeds will never sprout in the humus; seedlings born late in spring (June) and showing the cotyledons still in September are sure to be killed by frost; also seedlings growing in the shade of weeds. The logging roads and log yards are real " nurseries " for Poplar. On steep ground, the seedlings are washed out by the rain. The growth is very fast. Seed years are annual; hollow trees are likely to furnish very poor seeds. Plantations of 3-year-olds at Biltmore on poor old fields did badly: on good soil, especially where a volunteer growth of Locust has joined the plants, the success is complete. H. Maples: I. Primeval forests: Here the regeneration follows the compartment type (Adiron- dacks, Missouri valley), the group type and the selection type (Biltmore, Northern Minnesota). Maple usually appears in mixture with other hardAvoods, with Spruce and White Pine. Soft Maple occurs in low, moist sites as well as on dry ridges. Hard Maple demands well-drained and strong soil, preferring Northern aspects. II. Culled high forests: After culling, the younger stages of Maple are usually left in possession and develop in dense thickets, preventing more valu- able species from establishing themselves. In the Adirondacks, Soft Maple is frequently found on Spruceflats after windfalls (asso- ciated with Yellow Birch). III. Cultured high forests: Dr. Fernow at Axton succeeded in establishing, in places, a 151 S Y 1. VI CULT I I; K. splciiilid regeneration obtained from advance growth n. >. r. of the compartment type, removing the parents at one stroke. In Europe, the shelterwood compartment type answers admirably. Biltmore Forest i- deficient in Maple, still. Han! Maple planted on abandoned fields, pure or in mixture with White Pine, has done admirably, excepting dry S. W. slopes, dry spurs, and verj moist river bottoms. In Pisgah Forest, Red Maple usually appears a- a weed over- shadowing aristocratic seedlings. I. Ashes: I. Primeval forests: The Ashes usually regenerate and stand in patches or groups, occupying the moister sites. II. ( ulled high forests: Protected by moist ground, the Ashes stand a good chance to escape the iires. During early youth, the seedlings endure remark- ablj heavy shade. Weeding and improvement-cuttings produce splendid results. III. Cultured high forests: Regeneration in the group type is easy, if helped by cleaning (Ducker .Mountain of Biltmore Estate) and gradual removal of the obstructing trees. On old fields, on moist slopes. White Ash is often accompanied by Yellow Poplar and II Plantations of 3-year-old Green Ash ha\ more on dry. hard soil. Plantations of 3-year-old White Ash ii well; also seed plantations on good soil in The early growth is very last. Seeds arc profusely produced from the pole stage on. J. Red Spruce: I. Primeval forests: The primeval Spruce woods appear as more or less even-aged compartments in the swamps and sloughs of the Lake States and on the dry. shallow South -lope-, of New England; in the cleared group form and in the selection form in Western X. C. at altitudes exceeding 5,000 feet, mixed with Aides fraseri (selection); in the selection form, grafted upon compart- ments of Beech and .Maple, on the hardwood slopes of the Adiron- dacks. In the latter case, spruce never regenerates in the heavy layer of broad-leafed humus, but selects invariably the half-rotted corpse of a dead tree for a seed-bed. II. Culled high forests: Tn slightly culled forests immune from tires. Red Spruce seems to reproduce with remarkable ease. On fired ground; Birches and Cottonwoods frequently act a- ushers. Ms 152 le fi sia. 1 i ll lerlv a t Bilt- h alt S\\ amps .I i very lie ga I'- Of a rn Ige. S YLVICULT U R E. persistence below an impenetrable leaf canopy of Beech or Maple is surprising. Freed from superstructure, after long years of suf- fering, it answers the chance for rapid growth almost immediately. III. Cultured high forests: Spruce requires high atmospheric moisture: is satisfied with shallow soil: can be readily reproduced by n. s. r. as well as by planting. Seed years: Prolific in North Carolina in fall 1901. The trees, top heavy with cones, were mowed down by storms. K. White Pine: I. Primeval forests: The White Pine of the primeval woods appears in compartments, almost even-aged, or in groups, either pure, or with an admixture of Hard Maple. Linden. Elm. Yellow Birch; or in the form of standards over Red Spruce and Balsam; or in the selection form, as in the Calmia thickets of the Pink-bed Swamps. It is flat-rooted, subject to windfalls, in the North not tolerant of shade. II. Culled high forests: The gorgeous White Pine forest- of the Lake Stale-, after culling followed by lire-, are invariably surrendered to a shrubbage of hardwoods. Second growth i- found in beautiful groups underneath Norway Pine: individually sprinkled amongst .lack Pine. Bassw 1. Birch, etc: also on old burns in extensive, even-aged compartments; along roads and at the edge of clearings; in New England on old fields. In Western X. ( '.. White Pine regenerates readily on broom- sedge fields; in mixture with the Oaks on the uplands: in mixture with Red Maple and Red Birch in the river swamps, etc. III. Cultured high forests: At Biltmore, the n. s. r. of White Pine started by a few seed tree- succeeds easily in the group type. White Pines planted under dense shelter require freeing soon (com- partment 4.")). Individual trees are very retentive of branches. Plantations on several hundred acres have done admirably. White Pine i- the easiest Pine to plant on old fields or in groups in the woods after clearing. Seed years are frequent at Biltmore. recurring at interval- of two or three year-, f. i.. fall of 1902 and 1904. L. Yellow Pine-: I. Primeval forests: The pure group form (Black-hills) or the group form wedded with the compartment form of Oaks reach- ing a lesser height than the Pines seem to be typical. Pine standards are often left. The compartment form of P. taeda is also frequent. P. divaricata and murrayana invariably occur in 153 SYLVICULTURE. even-aged compartments j P. paluatris and P. heterophylla usually occur in groups. II. Culled high forests: The culled forest is usually visited by fires which gradually convert an undergrowth of hardwoods, where it exists, into coppice. Beneath Longleaf Pine, this undergrowth begins to sprout only when the mature Pine is removed. P. rigida and P. echinata less than 6 inches in diameter are also coppiced (Xew Jersey Pines) to a limited extent. Where the pure high forest continues, fire has usually improved the chances for n. s. r. by preparing a ready seed-bed and by lessening the severity of future fires. All Yellow Pines regenerate prolifically on abandoned fields, often in stands which artificial planting could not produce equally well. III. Cultured high forests: The n. s. r. of P. echinata in the Biltmore woods creates nuclei for small groups which are freed and gradually enlarged. Heavy thinnings from the early thicket stage on prevent crowding in the pole stage and thereby check the chances for successful attacks by the bark beetles. Pruning 100 decidedly predestined trees per acre seems remunerative (dead branches only) at Biltmore. Standard form of P. echinata seems indicated at Biltmore. All Yellow Pines are easily planted when one or two years old and get along without cultivation on old fields. Heavy growth of weeds, on good soil, however, is sure to smother them. In pure and large natural regenerations, it is wise to leave some hardwood standards with a view to securing an admixture of hardwood seedlings in due course of time. In mixture with White Pine, Yellow Pine is soon subdued on good soil, white it retains the lead on poor soil. Seed years of Pinus echinata at Biltmore occur every seven years. The fall of 1902 was a prolific breeder of seeds even in pole- woods :;;> years old (Walker-nursery at Biltmore). CHAPTER III. THE COPPICE FOREST. Paragraph LXVIII. Genesis of the coppice forest and its methods. The coppice Eoresl is either the result of stump-shoots or is obtained from rootsuekers. layers and cuttings. 154 A*.v ' / ' SYLVICULTURE. A. Stumpshoots (or stoolshoots or coppice shoots). I. Species: All hardwoods whilst young form stump shoots wherr cut just above the callus. Amongst the softwoods, the Sequoias exhibit enormous stump sprouts. Amongst the Yellow Pines, P. rigida and echinata, after F. E. Olmsted also P. taeda, are capable of developing sprouts from stumps measuring less than six inches in diameter. White Pines, Spruces, Firs, Larches, Hemlocks, etc., never form coppice shoots. II. Diameter: The sprouting capacity^ rapidly decreases, usnnlly with_ increasing diameter of the stumjx The diameter at which* the principal height growth is completed usually denotes the limit permissible for coppice rotations. This rule is particularly well illustrated by the behavior of Yelow Pine, Birch, Maple, Yellow Poplar, Oaks, Hickories, etc. Chestnut and Sequoia do not seem to follow the rule. III. Soil: Good soil allows big stumps otherwise unproductive of sprouts to form stoolshoots. Good soil produces stronger, but less sprouts than poor soil. PV. Life of stumps: The life and hence the sprouting capacity of stumps repeatedly coppiced is closely connected with the resist- ance offered by the timber to decay. White Oak, Chestnut, Se- quoia and Locust are persevera.nl sprouters, the scars on the stump being protected from rotting by the antiseptic qualities of the sub- stances incrustating the heart wood. The reproductive power of Birch, Beech, and Maple is not sus- tained for a long time. Ash and Basswood show greater persever- ance. It might be said thai a long-lifed species is also a perseverant sprouter. The sprouting capacity is especially g 1 in species capable of forming a separate and detached root system for the sprout inde- pendent from the mother stump. This is the case in species forming sprouts from the base of the stump (at the root collar). V. Optimum number of stumps per acre: The optimum depends on the length of the rotation. It is con- sidered to be: For German Oak coppice, rotation 20 years, 2,000 stumps per acre; for Osier culture, rotation one or two years, 80,000 stumps per acre. VI. Manner of coppicing: The use of the axe is preferable to that of the saw. Stumps should be as low as possible, to begin with. In case of stumps — notably Beech and Birch — coppiced a number of times it is better to cut in the new wood. The scar should allow the 155 SYLVK I l.T l J; E. water to inn off, instead of collecting it like a saucer. The expense of the genesis of the coppice forest i- practically nil. VII. Season of coppicing: It, the wood must he peeled, tin- cul -hould he made in early 3Pring. Late spring cutting -uhject- the new -pront- to earlv fro-ts, ( « >] >|»i<iiiL: in Au^n-t is supposed — tm- similar rea-oii- — to.aU'ect the vitality of tlie stumps. Where the shoots are not to be | led, cutting in late winter i- best. Winter cutting prevents the stumps from bleeding and allows to remove the product cut before the ap- pearance of new shoots without injuring the stumps. Cutting in fall subjects the stumps to frost-cracks and to bark- blistering; it causes the new- fleshy -1 ts to appear early in spring, at the season of prevailing late frosts. Accessibility of the locality at the proposed season of cutting and availability of local labor further determine the season of eutt ing. VIII. Reinforcing: Where the number of stumps is or becomes deficient, there the owner may plant seedlings or stump-plants to replenish the growing stock. B. Root sucker-: Cottonwbod, Willow. Locust, Alder, some Elms and Maples, after European experience even Liriodendron (?) form root suckers, especially on porous soil. The suckers are in- creased by locally uncovering the porous soil. They might be severed from the stump and planted when two or three year- old; but this i- expensive. Gardeners often use piece- of root-, say ten inches long and finger-thick, for propagating broad-leaf species in g 1 soil. An observer in !•". and T., .May. l!K>4. claim- to have found that Fir and Spruce in the Presidential Range of the White Moun- tain- propagate their kind by the natural and unaided formation of suckers developing from long horizontal root-. (. Layer-: A low, long branch of a standing tree i- partly buried in a trench one-half foot deep, held in place by hook-, pins or stones, the end of the branch protruding above -round. The branch thus embedded form- roots and si ts. The latter are severed from each other a year or two before planting in the open. Layering i- a gardener's method only locally used in park-. At very high altitudes, under the influence of very great atmospheric moisture, the low Spruce branches naturally form root- and shoots in a similar manner. 1). ( uttiiiL:-: Willow- and Poplar- are usually propagated by "cuttings," \i/..: pieces of branches one foot long and two years old, tipped with a piece one year old. The. cuttings arc inserted obliquely, 156 SYLVIC CJLTURE. the tips barely showing above the ground. Planting dagger or turn- ing plow are the tools used. Care must be taken to prevent the bark from peeling off. It is claimed that the constant use of cut- tings causes a deterioration of growth. Cuttings of sapling size taken from strong and long branches are also planted in good nursery soil for a number of years and planted in the open -round after catching root. Willows and Poplars allow of heavy trim- ming. Among conifers, only Sequoia permit- the use of cuttings. It i- claimed that Sequoia-chips sprout successfully in the moist climate of the I oast Range. Paragraph LXIX.. Pedagogy of the coppice forest. The coppice forest 1- tended by cleaning, weeding, and thinning; also by improvement cuttings and pruning. A. Cleanings: To prevent undesirable shoots from developing, the -tump- producing them must he removed, stump- ,.f undesira- ble species (Blackgum, Hazel. Alder) can he removed only by dig- ging, or by heaping dirl upon them, or by Bring heaps of debris placed on the -tump-. Usually, it i- preferable to deaden undesira- ble tree- instead of trying to prevent their -tump- from forming sprouts. In some species, -tump- three feel high will form poor sprouts, a quality which might he taken advantage of. B. Weeding: Misshapen trees or pojes of a desirable hardwood species, nit level with the ground, will at once produce shoots of good quality. Poles badly damaged by fires should he cut for an increase of vitality. Trees left because worthless should he .lead- ened, unless they belong to the aristocracy, or unless they improve the good sprouts a- well a- the -oil in the role 0f subordinate companions. ('. Thinnings: Thinnings in European coppice woods are rare; in tanbark coppice they usually purport to improve the quality of the hark. Where mad.', the thinnings usually remove the weaker shoots of a -tump for Hie hem-tit of the Letter and stronger shoots. The rotation- of European coppice being short, heavy thinnings tend to deteriorate the quality (branchiness and shape) of the -hoot- as well as of the soil; and light thinnings are rarely remunerative. In America, coppice of Catalpa, of Chestnut, of Locust and ttickory may invite heavy thinnings where fen.-.' posts, telephone posts, railroad ties, wagonstock, etc.. find a ready market. In case of Bickory, thinnings periodically removing the he-' tree- (a la Borggreve)" might seem indicated. 157 SYLVICULTURE. D. Improvement cuttings: Improvement cuttings are necessary in culled coppice forest emerging directly from primeval hardwood forest heavily cut or heavily Bred. Such forest is invariably en- cumbered wiili bushy and worthless standards (if the standard have a value, the forest belongs to the form of coppice under stand- ards described in Par. LXXIll-Par LXXVIII) interfering with the development of the shoots; or with undesirable species left by the logger. The mob frequently prevails over the aristocrats. The first final cut at the end of the firsl coppice rotation usually answers the purpose of an improvement cutting. E. Pruning: Pruning is required to prevent coppice of Catalpa, Locust and Ash from forming forks or heavy branches. Naturally, pruning is expensive and dangerous at the same time since live branches are removed. The danger is particularly great where the rotations are long, the pruned stump shoots being left for decades of years after pruning. In the pollarding form, pruning or rather lopping obviously comprises the harvest of the crop. Paragraph LXX. Key to the forms of coppice forest. Although coppicing is called a type of natural regeneration, it is an absolutely unnatural measure never adopted by primeval nature. Primeval forms of coppice forest proper do not exist. Species propagating their kind, at least partially, by root- suckers frequently form rootsucker forests closely resembling cop- pice forests proper. Chestnuts, Locusts and many other hardwoods broken down by storm may form natural sprouts as well from the stumps. Still. these cases are probably so scattering as not to deserve the name of "form of primeval coppice forest." Thus there remain only two large groups of coppice forests, namely "Culled Coppice Forests" and "Cultured Coppice Forests." In both cases we have to deal only with the la rue- area form or com- part meiit form of coppice. Woods seemingly consisting ol uneven-aged coppice shoots, mixed in groups or individually, are dealt with as "Forms of eop- pice-under-standards" (Par. LXX Ill-Par. LXXVIII), unless the stanaards are worthless and promise to remain worthless. A. Culled forms of coppice: These forms emerge either directly from omnivendible primeval forms, or else have passed through the intermediate stage of "culled -coppice under standards." 15S S Y L V I C U L T U K E. I. Characteristic for culled coppice is: An even display of growth. A surprising density of stand. The presence of some weathered and worthless snags and stumps protruding from the even sea of coppice. II. Subdivision of culled coppice: Uniformity being characteristic for culled coppice, sub-forms can scarcely be singled out, unless the means of coppicing — fire or axe — serve as a criterion. Hence there might be distinguished a. The form of fire — culled coppice, and b. The form of axe — culled coppice. This distinction is not made on the basis of different display; but on the basis of difference in treatment required by the two forms. HI. Treatment of culled coppice: l'he culled coppice is regenerated by being coppiced anew. In the case of fire-culled coppice, it is wise to delay the second cut as little as possible. Coppicing in patches or small groups is not advisable, the young shoots requiring all the Iighi available for rapid lignification. An insufficient number of stumps may call for artificial re- inforcing. Improvement cuttings convert pour coppice shoots interfering with their neighbors from above into healthy coppice shoots press- ing their neighbors helpfully from below. B. Cultured forms of coppice: No form of cultured foresl can be obtained more easily and more cheaply than the form of cultured coppice. In the European hardwood forests, the cultured coppice of the past has often served as the forerunner of the cultured high forest of the present sylvan era. I. Characteristic for cultured coppice is an even stand, a dense stand, freedom from undesirable competitors and tree weeds. II. Subdivisions of cultured coppice forms are: a. The simple form of cultured coppice, where all shoots have the same age. , , b. The two-storied form of cultured coppice, where the growing stock displays two tiers of leaf canopy, viz.: an upper and a lower tier, the age of the tiers differing by the length of a rotation. In addition, a form of "high stumps" is usually distinguished, where trees are cut some six to ten feet above ground and where the shoots forming on that high stump are cut at short intervals. This 159 SYLVICULT1 i: E. form, adapted particularly for the production of fascines a1 Levees, i- known as: c. The pollarding form of cultured coppice. In this form, rotations of one to five years are usually adopted, and the "lopping" takes place in the "new wood." III. Treatment of cultured coppice forms: Regeneration in the cultured forms of coppice is, of course, by coppicing, helped by planting stumps, cuttings, suckers and layering. Regeneration may proceed against the direction of the wind which brings the heavy frosts of spring and fall (blizzard-direction). Clean- ing ami thinnings arc often indicated. Paragraph LXXI. Critical remarks on coppice forests. The coppice foresi generally furnishes small-sized timber, nota- bly firewood and farm supplies, but no or little esaw timber. Its production is not so many-sided as that of the high forest, and for that reason rio1 equally safe. On the other hand, allowing of shorter rotations, the timber investment is much smaller than in high forest, and the returns from "final yields" are more frequent. A comparatively small area may produce, under a coppice form, a regularly sustained yield. The soil of the forest is frequently exposed, and shows a thin layer of humus. Shallow soil is. however, sufficient for the welfare ol a coppice forest. The water-retaining capacity of the coppice forest is small. Coppice forest i- less exposed to storm, tire. snow, and insects (being broad-leafed usually), and more exposed to late and early frosts than high forest. As a stock pasture, it is much more pro- ductive than high forest; hut also much more damaged by pasture. The expense of regeneration and of pedagogy i- slight;. The species forming shoots from below the .-round and those forming root-suckers usually allow of long rotations. Paragraph LXXII. Coppice forests by species. A. Oaks: I. ( lulled ( lak coppice: lulled <)nk coppice is usually fire-culled. The stumps do no! tire 01 emitting shoots after each lire, still, the shoots become weak, stunted and bushy-crowned and refuse to grow in diameter as well as in height. L60 S Y L V I C U L T U E E. It is remarkable to find that these worthless shoots may be re- placed by strong shoots after coppicing with the axe. The poorer the fire-culled Oak coppice, the greater is the im- provement obtainable by axe-coppicing. II. Cultured Oak Coppice: In Europe, Oak coppice is the form in which Oak bark is raised for tanning purposes, under a rotation of fifteen to twenty-five years. In America, coppiced Oak is used only for charcoal and fire- wood— rarely for railroad ties. Rotations yielding ties will not allow ot ready reproduction under the coppice form, unless the soil is very strong. At Biltmore. Post Oak three inches through. White Oak ten inches through. Black Oak and Scarlet Oak twelve inches through are unlikely to sprout. A rotation 01 not to exceed forty years seems indicated. Such a rotation might also yield hoop poles, poles for sphtwood fabrics and minor wagonstock. B. Beech: Beech coppice yields firewood only, charcoal and so-called retort- wood for dry distillation. Ihe sprouting capacity of the Beech invites short rotations. Strong soil is required. 0. Hickory: Hickory coppice promises good financial results on strong soil only, irires must be strictly kept in check, owing to the heavy scars which they inflict on Hickory, notations of about twenty years, low stumps and winter cutting seem required. On Biltmore soil, stumps over six inches in diameter usually re- fuse to sprout. D. Locust : Locust coppice densely planted on old fields seems to be a good investment, although the poles thus produced consist of sappy wood undesirable for fence posts. The young shoots suffer from a pith- boring moth (Ecdytolopha species). The sprouting capacity is very good, helped by the ready forma- tion of rootsuckers. In Germany, wagon stock is obtained in rotations of twenty years. E. Chestnut : Chestnut is the American species best adapted for the coppice forest. Stumps of any diameter emit sprouts. A rotation of twenty 161 SYLVICULTURE. to forty years will yield vineyard stakes, hop poles, telephone poles, posts, rails., ties and wood for the extraction of tannic acid: a rota- tion of five years is said to be used for the production of hoop poles for barrel hoops. The European complaint doe- not seem warranted in America that rotations exceeding twenty year- invite a disease known as " heart-rot." In Alsace-Lorraine, thinnings take place in the tenth year: the cut is made in early winter, and the stumps are sometimes pro- tected from the influence of frosl by hen].- of brush. In the Appa- lachians, such precautions are not called for. It i- unnecessary, if not unwise, to reduce the Dumber of sprouts starting from one stump artificially. Spring cutting and high -tump- art' objec- tionable. On dry and impoverished -oil. or under the regime of tire-. ( nestnut coppice i- hopelessly lost. F. Cottonwood: ( oppice forest of Cottons 1 produces match stock and pulp- wood. The stumps have little vitality and will not endure more than four rotation- of twenty year- each. Very low stumps are re- quired to insure healthy sprouts and to encourage the production ol rootsuckers. The growth i- very fa-t in the tir-t year-. G. "Willows (Osier-culturei: Osier culture i- considered a money maker in Germany where labor i- cheap. It i- now in vogue in New York and in Sew Jersey. The best species are Salix viminalis, Salix amygdalina, Salix pur- purea. Salix acutifolia (caspica). The rotation comprises one or two year-. With the exception of Salix caspica, a moist -oil i- re- quired (meadow land in river bottom- i by the willow-. The stumps do not yield a return for more than twelve to -i\- teen years. For the formation of an Osier grove, shoots two feci long are used, of which about 80.000 are put in per acre. It i- stated that the more shoots there are per acre, the better i- the quality of the Willow, as branchy stuff' cannot be used for baskel making. Cultivation between the rows i- -aid to be very advisable or even necessary, especially in the first year. There are many insects feeding on the leaves and many fungi besetting the leaves of the Willows. A one-year rotation i- best. After three or four year-, however, a two-years" rotation frequently intervenes, so a- to allow the root to develop unhampered. The -hoot- two year- old are used for the 1G2 BYLVK I 1. 1 1 i in July ami <ii \rri:i; iv. Illl Paragraph LXXIII. Genesis of coppice -under-standaids forests and its meth- II I' III i \\ III \ SYLVICTJ I.T IRE. II. Age-classes: The number of age-classes in a normal over- wood equals the fraction 5 wherein R represents the length of tln> rotation in the overwood, and r represents the length of the rotation in the underwood. The normal difference of age between consecutive classes is "r" year-. III. Normal formation: The overwood is composed of " stand- ards •' regenerate!!, at the year of coppiced underwood, from self- sown seed falling from the overwood or, in the cultured forest, from planted seedlings. The seedlings of the overwood grow up im- merged and often badly endangered in the new underwood. When this is coppiced at the age of r years, an improvement cutting taxes place simultaneously removing misshapen or damaged stand- ards of the various older classes as well as the weaklings in the youngest class. By this improvement cutting the leaf canopy of the standards, which has had ample chance of enlargement during the past r years, is cut back to a normal limit. The older an age-class is, the smaller is the number of its constituents. C. Aonormal formation of overwood and underwood: A normally proportioned and normally formed overhead is never found. Deficiencies lie 1. In a lack of one or the other age-class; 2. In an abnormal number of constituents per class; 3. In the fact, that the overwood is partially recruited from stoolshoots and not from seedlings. Abnormal coppice over-standards is the usual consequence of the culling of primeval hardwoods or of primeval pineries forming a superstructure over Oaks, Hickories. Gums, etc. The burned slopes and outskirts of the Alleghanies usually belong to the coppice-under-standard form. The fire-coppiced under- wood here consists of Soft Maple, Oalinia. Rhododendron, Chestnut, Oaks. Hickories, Black Gum, Sourwood, Ealesia, etc.. etc.. all of which are usually devoid of value. Culled and fired forest of Pinus echinata, taeda and paustris frequently belong to the same form, with Oaks in the underwood and the Pines in the overwood. Paragraph LXXIV. Pedagogy of coppice-under-standards forest. Coppice under standards i- or may be tended by cleaning.. w ling, improvement cuttings, pruning and thinning. 164 SYLVICULTURE. Thinnings are applied to the underwood only: whilst the over- wood alone is the object of pruning. A. Cleaning purports to eliminate undesirable shoots in young coppice, or removes desirable shoots liable to interfere with the development of ovenvood seedlings imbedded in the coppice. B. Weeding removes weed trees, usually tending to form new sprouts from the stumps of the weed trees removed. Weeding is a necessity where a culled forest is to be converted into a cul- tured forest, the culled forest containing a large number of weed trees. At Biltmore, the weed trees removed are Black Gum over- shadowing the coppice and the Pine seedlings standing therein; fire-scalded Oaks or Hickories, bent and low crowned; wolfs of Yellow Pine; pretentious Dogwoods or Halesias and so on. C. Improvement cuttings improve the prospects of the over- wood, remove undesirable members of the overwood and regulate the number of the constituents forming an age-class of the over- wood. '"The normal cuttings in the overwood are improvement cuttings." In semi-normal woods, the oldest class of the overwood is entirely removed. Class II is reduced to the former membership of Class I: Class III is reduced to the former membership of Class II, etc. It stands to reason, that the least desirable mem- bers of a class should be thus removed. In semi-normal woods, the improvement cuttings take place at the time at which the underwood is ripe for coppicing. The improvement cutting yields timber of all sorts and of all sizes obtained from the A-arious age-classes. The improvement cutting does not regularly intend to help regeneration. Frequently, of course, the stumps of trees removed by the improvement cutting form sprouts partaking in the coppice- tier. D. Pruning: Dead branches of the overwood trees might be removed to develop timber clear of dead knots. Live branches of overwood trees formed low on the bole are removed to lessen the intensity of the shade to which the under- wood and the seedlings imbedded therein are locally subjected. The members of the overwood, owing to their free position, are apt tc form and retain heavy branches. The act of pruning in coppice under standards corresponds with that described in sec- tion sixty-three for high forest. The coppice is pruned only in rare instances, f. i., for the im provement of oak tanbark. 165 s Y L V I C ULTURE. E. Thinnings are sometimes indicated in dense coppice in order to increase the f 1 and light supply of the youngesi age-class of overwood imbedded in the coppice; or in order to increase gradually the air -parr surrounding the members of that class, so as not to subject them to the shock of sudden exposure at the time of cop- picing: or to obtain the ends of Par. l.XIl. A., especially where the overwood classes appear in groups; or to improve the quality and the quantity of the bark in tanbark coppice. In all cases, the thinning must yield a surplus revenue. Paragraph LXXV. Key to the forms of coppice-under-standards torests. The primeval woods do not contain any form of coppice under standards. In culled hardwood forests, on the other hand, these tonus are almost regularly met with. A. Culled forms of coppice under standards. I. Characteristics: Primeval hardwood forests are usually paucivendible only. After lumbering the merchantable species and sizes, a rank growth of coppice -1 ts frequently enters an appear- ance under the assistance of fires, overshadowed by poles and trees of all age-classes devoid of present value. Many individuals of the overwood are badly burned; or are hollow, fungus decayed, worm riddled, etc. Thus whilst the underwood consists of fire coppice or -1 ts sprouting from the stumps of merchantable trees, the overwood con- sists of undesirable species and of immature trees usually crippled by firing and felling. In addition, there are plenty of weed trees left on the ground. The younger age-classes of the overwood are usually absent. In forests originally composed of a Pine overwood and of a hardwood underwood — a form once frequently found all over the Southeast — the lumberman usually remove- merely the taller Tines scaling over ten inches in diameter. The -mailer Pines, if fireproof, henceforth join with the hardwood trees and hardwood poles in the formation of an overwood. The underwood consisting of miser- aide tire sprouts i- continuously clipped by foresi fires. The butts of these "suae-" are flattened on the ground, as if liquid wood had hardened on it. The -hoot-, weakly inserted on the callus, can lie torn oil' easily. If these snags are cut. fresh shoots will form, of much greater vigor and of greater strength at the point of insertion. 1GG SYLVICUL T U R E. II. Subdivisions of culled coppice under standards: The number of forms of coppice under standards is particularly great, owing to the variations occurring in the tiers of forest, viz.: the overwood and the underwood. a. Ine overwood is omni, multi. or pauci vendible, as the case may be. It is arranged either in groups or in patches (individuals) imbedded in the coppice. Thus we obtain: 1. The form of culled coppice under standards raised in the group type, and 2. The form of culled coppice under standards raised in the selection type. b. The leaf canopy of the standards covers a certain percentage of the ground. This percentage, where high, forces the underwoods into a minor role: where small, it allots to the underwood the major part. The Longleaf Pine woods of the Smith, after heavy culling, illustrate the latter form; the Shortleaf Pine woods of the Bilt- more Plateau exhibit the former form. These forms might be designated as: 1. The form of prevailing coppice under standards; 2. rihe form of coppice under prevailing standards, c. According to the means of coppicing, I line should be dis- tinguished 1. The form of fire-culled coppice under standards; 2. The form of axe-culled coppice under standards. III. Treatment of culled forms of coppice under standards. Improvement cuttings and. where improvement cuttings cannot be made, weeding are usually required. Fire coppice should be cut down, wherever the growth is stagnant. An undue preponderance of standard-, may be checked by the use of the axe. Planting of seedlings can usually be dispensed with. Where it is advisable to plant seedlings, the coppice must he cut clean to begin with. B. Cultured forms of coppice under standards: I. Characteristic for the cultured forms of coppice under stand- ards is the lack of weed trees and of unhealthy standards; further the geometric regularity of the figures considered as compartments and sub-compartments. The overwood is composed only of storm-firm and light-demand- ing species. 1(37 S V L V I C U L T I R E. II. Subdivisions of cultured forma of coppice under standards. As in the culled forest there should be distinguished: a. The form of cultured coppice under standards raised in the group type with 1. Prevailing coppice, or with 2. Prevailing standards. b. The form of cultured coppice under standards raised in the selection type with 1. Prevailing coppice, or with 2. Prevailing standards. the standards might he planted in regular rows (diaries Heyer's idea) or in regular groups or — irregularly — in suitable places; or they might be recruited from self-sown seed under the selection type. III. Treatment of cultured forms of coppice under standards. The regeneration of the overwood as well as its pedagogy is difficult, unless the group type is carried through. Individual seed- lings are very apt to be suffocated in the mass of faster-growing coppice and require continuous, careful attention. Thinnings are required to prepare the youngest elass of standards immerged in the coppice for its future task. The overw 1 is sometimes pruned — in this case of dead as well as of live branches. Paragraph LXXVI. Critical remarks on coppice-under-standards forest. The coppice-under-standards forest combines the good qualities of the high forest with those of the coppice forest. It furnishes timber of all sizes in the largest possible variety. It requires a moderate investment sunk into the growing stock and allows the overwooa to grow into log size at a very fast rate. It is a good form for the owners of small woodlands desiring steady returns. It protects the fertility of the soil better than the coppice form. The logs furnished by the overwood raised selectionwise are necessarily branchy and wide ringed, with the incident had and good qualities of such logs. The trees usually do not yield more than two saw logs. Where the underwood is unsalable or low priced, stress must be laid on a prevalence of the overwood. Where it is valuable as a tanning material or as wagon stock, the underwood is favored. The danger from fire — since hardwoods are usually at stake — is not very great. The density of the brushy underwood, however, aggravates the difficulties confronting the fire fighter. 168 SYLVICULTURE. In Europe, " coppice -under- standards " is more and more aban- doned and restricted to the inundation districts along the rivers. Here, on strong soil, the undergrowth endures an enormous amount of shade, and the overwood develops fairly long boles in spite of a free position. The coppice-under-standards form in Europe requires careful, minute and honest management: careful, because the leaf canopy of the overwood rapidly increases during the rotation of the under- wood ; minute, because individual trees or groups of trees must be continuously watched; honest, because an unscrupulous forester or a thoughtless owner may easily and heavily reduce the capital of the forest whilst claiming to merely withdraw revenue pro- duced by it. In America, in the hardwood forests of the Alleghanies and in the pineries of the South, the form is destined to play a most important role. The form exists and will have to be retained for decades of years to come, owing to its tempting financial merits; the ease and cheapness of regeneration; the short period of waiting between remunerative cuts: the variety of produce; the fast rate' of growth; the small amount of growing stock required for •■ sustained " yields and so on. In the course of time, curtailing the cut of standards or allowing the coppice to grow into larger sizes, the forester may gradually convert the coppice-under-standards fores! into a high forest. The average growing stock, per acre, in the high forest contains about twice as many cords of wood as the average grow- ing stock in the coppice under-standard- forest. On the other hand, by removing all standard-, the form of simple coppice is readily obtained. In the Oak-coppice-under-Pine-standard forest of Biltmore it has been observed that the Pine poles suffer less from bark beetles than they do in the denser polewoods of the high forest of Pine. Paragraph LXXVII. Coppice-under-standards by species. By culling and firing, every primeval forest of hardwoods existing in the United States is converted into coppice under stand- ards. Again, many, nay, almost all two-storied high forests in the South having Pine in the overwood and hardwood in the under- wood present the form of coppice-under-standards in a modified manner. The number of constellations of species for a place in the over- wood and in the underwood is endless. 160 SYLVK ULT1 I: E. A few remarks on characteristic forms must suffice. A. ( hestnut-coppice under standards of 5fellow Poplar, White, Chestnut and Red Oak, Hickory, Ash, Locust, — the Pisgah Forest form. ( t rtain age-elasse- of the standards— the sapling stage and the pole stage, arc invariably absent, owing to the fires of the last decades. The number of Chestnut stumps is deficient. The weed species of the forest (Halesia, Soft .Maple Dogw 1. Calmia, etc.) readily replenish the coppice-stratum. The standards regen- erate their kind readily where the weeds are not too rank. Xo means arc known by which to extirpate the tree and bush weeds preventing n. s. r. of the standards in a sufficiently promising way. Heavy pasturage in early spring practiced before the Chestnut stumps had time to sprout and before the seeds of the standards (excepting Chestnut Oak and White Oak) had time for germina- tion may solve the problem. Such pasturage, whilst it checks the weeds, presses the seeds of the standards at the same time into the mineral soil. Other remedies are: Deadening: cutting with high stumps left: bark peeling; removing side branches with a brush axe, etc. However, entire extirpation of the [igneous weeds due- not seem financially advisable at the present time. Frequently it might be best to leave the weeds untouched for the time being,. postponing the battle until the undergrowth of seedlings and cop- pice shoots requires increased influx of light. Then. too. the cutting of the weeds will force them to lie satisfied with a subsistence below the level of the underwood. Chestnut standards should not be left, since the -hock of a sudden change of surroundings causes them to sicken. The adjoin- ing wood- will tend to reinforce the regeneration area by n. -. r. of Chestnut, where the compartments simultaneously coppiced are -mall or narrow. Artificial reinforcing seems unnecessary although the planting of Walnuts in suitable places may prove remunerative. B. Oak coppice mixed with Hickory coppice under l'ine standards. This form prevails on the Biltmore Plateau and over vast areas in Arkansas, Mississippi, Alabama. North Carolina. South Carolina, etc. Sylvicuitural treatment i- possible only where the Oak can be removed to a nearby fuel-market. Rotations of thirty to forty year- for the coppice -cent best. Shorter rotation- are required where the coppice j., badly damaged by tin-. 170 s. r. S YLVICULTUE E. In seed years of Yellow Pine, the coppiced area should be as large as compatible with the market. It might he ^e to cut ear, ]n ta.l and to burn the coppice before the Pine seeds be^ to fall. Seed rears of Pine at Biltmore occur at intervals of seven years Lnprovement cuttings should make up the sustained "eld" a, tai as possible, m years of deficient seeding; or such comLrt ments should be taken in hand, fa winch the coppLe growls richly beset with Pine poles and Pine saplings In the course of the improvement cuttings, the nuclei of n s of Pine require careful attention. Weeds like Chinquapin' an Back gum are checked wherever they obstruct the Lirwood; where they form part of the vndenv 1. especially under group pro Metier "e thaDkfUlIy ^ ^ - — «* i During ^"7* ^ a'la,'t'"' '" the f°raati0n "f sta^rds. During ; the earlier stages. ]t retains its branches badly where T m.(hlk e°PPice- «**« ^e later pole stage, it is apt f" SUff" ^ -ndfaH- Groups of White Pfae standard *X answer better than standards individually scattered. CHAPTER V. PROPAGATION OF FOREST PRODUCTS OTHER THAN WOOD AND TIMBER. Paragraph LXXVIII. Raising of forest by-products In many cases better revenue i tafaed from the by-products ;.; , '» '''■ "-'■ tl»»" from t,,, w I and timber. fabackwood ^,7/ clos«d to traffic, forest pasture often yields the only means I; at!?Tg ,VV:"!U"- <»<'•—>>- led districts, the combination tuZTZ \ Z^thiSOften^iS&hle- ^e main prod- ucts thus obtained and the industries connected with then pro- duct ion are: l A. Tanbark and raising 0f tanbarfc: The thickness of the hark used for tanning purposes and ob- ained either under a high forest or under a coppice Lest system number of '" ^ "*"**• '" ^ ^ ^^ ^ the ™ , TPS PM aCFe ta aW 2>000> ^inforced by stump Planting at each cutting The healthier the growth of the shoot" the better are the tanning contents of the product In America, at the present time, no difference is made in the ^s0oil<lfiCOrky:,aik ^ "' — "^ ^ -'tainl^rom shoots only five inches in diameter. 171 S Y L VICULTl'R E. B. Cork industry: The cork industry is conducted in Southern France, Spain, Portugal and Northern Africa. Tor America, its introduction seems highly remunerative. Experiments made in Georgia and in the ( arolinas with plan- tations of Cork Oak have produced very healthy trees: for reasons unknown however, the cork production was deficient. Possibly the wrong species or the wrong variety was selected, or else mistakes were made in choosing soil, exposure ana sylvicultural treat nt. Mayr recommends experiments with Quercus variabilis for the section of Germany productive of Castanea vesca. C. Forest pasture: Up to 1880, forest pasture in Longleaf Pine woods of the South (Cane-brakes) and in the hardwood forests of the Alle- ghanies has occupied the rank of the most important forest indus- try. Nowadays, pasture is indicated on many a windswept ridge where the growth of timber is stunted, whilst the atmospheric moisture allows of a luxurious production of grass. Under nut- bearing trees, hog pasture is highly remunerative. In '"strong" coves, the growth of weeds offers splendid forage for cattle The more inaccessible the forest, the less is the value of the tree growth. Here an industry is advisable which converts vegetable fibre into animal matter. At the same time, the advantage gained by pasturage during and previous to regeneration frequently reduces the expense of regeneration. Whether the fencing of forest pastures is advisable depends on circumstances. A two-stringed barbed wire fence costs $40 per mne. Goats, as extirpators of woody weeds (Corylus, Azalea) are frequently useful on mountain pastures. Woody weeds damaging the pastures are kept in check by continuous mowing, especially if mowed in August. A limited use of fire, too, improves the pasture. Forest pastures are invaluable as fire lanes. Pasturage of cattle extends in Pisgah Forest from May 1st to October 15th. Sheep and hogs require feeding only in February. The revenue made per month amounts to: per head of cattle, fifty cents; horses, seventy-five cents; sheep, ten cents. Where the growth of trees on a permanent pasture is too dense, deadening or coppicing is required. Where it is too little or where erosion sets in, the pasture must be abandoned for a number of years. Dead trees placed horizontally on pastured slopes safeguard the pasture. 172 SYLVICULTURE. In European and in Indian forests, pasture still plays a most important role, frequently as a prescriptive right encumbering forests owned by the Crown or by the aristocracy. Relative to forest pasture in the Cascade Reserve of Oregon see "Forest Policy." Forest pasture in the Pine woods of the South and of the Southwest is of utmost economic importance. Forest pasturage requires regulation in the following points: Number of animals per acre; species of stock and of trees; season, of pasturage; remuneration; closed years; firing; responsibility; supervision; salting; improvements; access. D. Forest fruit raising: I. Pecan. Large investments are being made in Pecan plantations in the- South. Usually seedlings three years old are planted fifty to sixty feet apart. Payable crops are expected fifteen years after- planting. Cultivation and fertilization of Pecan orchards are re- quired just as in apple orchards. II. Apple-trees planted on freshly cutover woodlands (North- west slopes) are said to be particularly promising. III. Chestnuts. Chestnuts are either obtained from the woods- where Chestnut trees are grown for timber, or from orchards. In Pisgah Foresl seed years are said to occur every seven years. The nuts sell at fifty cents to one dollar per bushel. The mountaineers burn the woods to more readily uncover the uuts. Orcharding combined with grafting of French Chestnuts (Cas- tanea. vesca) on the American species has been tried in Pennsylvania with little success owing to forest fires. In Southern France a large revenue is obtained from the nuts ($5 to $6 annually from a good tree). IV. Acorns. The acorns of the White Oaks are -round as a substitute for coffee (Postum Cerea] 80%). In addition acorns are of high value for pannage and in game preserves. V. Berries. The crop of berries growing in the forest is locally leased to the highest bidder. The huckleberry crop i- improved by periodical burning. E. Maple sugar: The production of-sugar depends on the size and on the develop- ment of the individual trees, influenced by careful thinning. An underwood and a heavy layer of humus is helpful. Planted sugar orchards are rare and sutler from sun scald and from hardening soil. 173 SYLVIOULT L RE. I". Naval stores: No means are known tending to increase the production of naval stores. The best yield i> obtained from healthy, large trees. G. Rubber and guttapercha. H. Truffles and champignons. I. Gingseng i Alalia quinquef olia) : Gingseng grows in the Alleghanies in well- sheltered north and northwest coves of greatest fertility. The young roots are easily transplanted into nursery beds. The cultivation of ginseng in the woods, however, is not practicable. J. Sumach leaves: The leaves, used for tanning on a large -rale, are gathered on abandoned fields in Virginia. No care seems to be devoted to the reproduci ion. K. Pharmaceutical weed-: A large number of forest weeds bav< a pharmaceutical value and might be locally propagated and fostered. L. Peat bogs: Peat bogs reproduce themselves where the top layer- only are taken oil' periodically. Small benches are left between the pits utilized. M. Fish and game: In the Prussian stale forests, twelve per cent of the annual revenue is obtained from hunting and fishing leases. Private owners in the Adirondacks and in the Smith draw large revenue from leasing the exclusive privilege of bunting and fishing. For par- ticulars regarding the raising and nursing of Fish and Game see lectures on "Fish and Game Keeping." Paragraph LXXIX. Combination of sylviculture and agriculture. As the woodlol belongs to the farm 30 does the farm embraced by woodland belong to the forest. Strange as it sounds: The forester abroad i- sometimes charged with the administration of more farmland than of woodland. A fair practical knowledge of agriculture is indispensable for the administrator of forests. Truly agricultural land within the foresl -i Id he cleared in due course, in pursuance of the maxim that every acre of ground must lie placed under the (permanently) most remunerative industry. The foresl farm produces victuals for the lumber camp and forage for the tennis and yokes: it yields the best possible tilt' lanes. 174 SYLVICULTURE. Under these circumstances it is not to be wondered at that a local, permanent or temporary combination of sylviculture and agriculture is frequently indicated, in coppice forests as well as in high forests, in cultured forests as well as in culled forests. A. Reasons prompting the forester to adopt "agriculture" may lie in the following moments: I. Frequently it due- not pay to eradicate the ••weed-"* in the forest previous to artificial or natural regeneration by n. s. r. In such cases, the forester may take advantage of the fertility stored up in the humus, using it for a number of year- for the production <>f field crops and freeing the soil incidentally from competing weeds. II. similarly the forester i- often at a loss to save his regen- erations from the attacks of wild or tame animal-. Allowing the plantation- to pass their earliest youth in the midst of farm crops which pay for the expense of protection from animal- by imme- diate return-, protection tor the plantations i- obtainable at a reduced charge. III. The fertility stored away in the accumulated humus, al- though exhaustible within three or four year-, frequently furnishes a snug revenue (especially where farmland i- scarce, a- in all mountain districts) defraying the outlay, or part of the outlay, required for successful reforestation. IV. In the prairie-, agriculture must precede the tree plantation, which will not thrive in -oil devoid of porosity. The plantation of trees, on the other hand, will protect the farm from drought in summer and from high wind- during winter: it will shelter the stock during severe blizzards, etc. Henry von Cotta, a- early a- 1819, advocated plantations of trees in row- twelve feet to fifty feet apart, the intervening spaces to be used for agriculture. The trees and the row- were to lie decimated gradually, and were again to be reinforced in compliance with the requirements of the farm. Cotta's plan might he successful where drought i- to he dreaded during summer, scorching the grass meadow and the grain field. B. Modern application : I. Field crop- intervening between two generations of the forest. All over the pineries of the South where abandoned fields pro- duce splendid polewoods of Pine, the woods are cut at the thirtieth to sixtieth year of the trees: the -oil is then used for the produc- tion of corn, cotton or small grain for a number of years and thereafter allowed to revert to Pine planted by n. s. r. from adjoin- 175 S Y LVlCTJ I.T I RE. ing woods. The same system is followed by thousands of farmers in the old country. II. Field crops temporarily raised amongst and together with forest crops. a. In coppice forests: In Germany, the owners of coppice woods, after coppicing, fre- quently burn tlie debris on the ground, ploughing the soil roughly thereafter and using it for growing small grain or potatoes as long as the fresh stool shoots do not overshadow the farm crops too severely. This system allows the farmer to continuously (although inter- mittently i produce field crops on steep slopes liable to wash, with the help of fertility furnished by the humus and by the activity of the tree roots. 0. In high forests: 1. In the early stages of sylviculture, acorns and pirn ids were frequently planted (like red clover) with barley, oats or summer rye. Compare Par. XV for details. •2. Sir 1). Brandis has established in Burmah a system named " toun.Lrya *' by which seedlings of Teak, planted with rice by native lessees on government reserves, obtain protection from wild animals and tires as well as from the Bamboo threatening to suffocate the seedling-. 3. A similar system has been practiced since 1810 in the German Rhine valley where splendid polewoods of \\hite Oak have thus been raised. Here in years past the returns from toungya used to more than cover the expense of forest planting and protecting. The field crops shade the *)ak slightly and tend to protect it from the effect 01 late frosts as well as from the attacks of grub worms (Melolonthidae). 1. hi Western X. ('.. the expense of clearing the forest for field crops amounts to ten dollars or twenty dollars, according to the density of the growing stock and according to the yield derivable from the sale of timber removed. < »n g 1 forest soil a few year- of corn crops are apt to refund tl utlay incurred for clearing. Thereafter the Pines the (inks. the Yellow Poplars and the Ashes of the adjoining wood- will quickly produce a superior plan- tat [on of t rees. Where the -oil i- stocked with tree weeds, and where no immature tree- mu-t he sacrificed, the system can be strongly endorsed. 170 SYLVICULTURE. Alphabetic index A PAGE Acclimatization of trees 18 Acorns, planting of 50 Advance growth types 118 Advance growth compartment type 120 Advance growth group type , 121 Advance growth selection type 123 Advance growth strip type 121 Agriculture in the forest 174 Air and tree growth 8 Air in soil 12 Alder, planting of seedlings 82 Aider, planting of seeds • 52 Alemann's method of winter- storage 51 Alemann's planting spade 67 Alpine forest 24 Altitude and tree growth 37 Ash, high forest of 152 Ash, planting of seedlings S3, 80 Ash, planting of seeds 53 Atlantic forest 18 B Bacteria in soil 1G, 17 Ball planting 68 Barth's planting beak 67 Basswood, high forest of 150 Basswood, planting of seeds 55 Bastard forms of types of enesar 87 Beech coppice 161 Beech, high forest of 149 Beech, planting of seedlings 87 Beech, planting of seeds 52 177 INDEX. PAGE Biermans' nursery mei hod s|> Biermans' spiral spade 66 Birchj planting of seedlings 82, ^s Birch, planting of seeds 51 Blue spruce, planting of seedlings 91 Borggreve thinnings 132 Buckeye, planting of seeds 54 Bunch-planting 01 Buttlar's nursery method 80 Buttlar's planting iron 07 C Catalpa, planting of seedlings 83, s; cherry, planting of seedlings 84, >7 Cherry, planting of seeds 56 Chestnut coppice 1G1 Chestnut coppice under standards 170 Chestnut, high forest of 147 Chestnut, planting of seedlings 82 Chestnuts, planting of seeds 51 Cleared compartment type of enesar loo Cleared group type of enesar lot ( leared selection type 105 Cleared strip type of enesar 102 Cleaning 165 Commercial nurseries 72 Coning of seeds 44 Coning, statistics of 45 Coppice forest 1 ~>4 Coppice under standards 163, 166, 168 Corkoak industry 172 Cottonwood coppice 162 Culled forms 127. 128, 158, 164 Cultivation oi nurseries 7'.) Cultivation of plantations 70, 72 Cultured forms 136, 140. 14 1. L45, 159, L67 ( iylinder spade 08 D Density of cover overhead 2S Density of stand 27 178 INDEX. PAGE Dependent species 2(i Depth of soil 13 Dominant, dominated 29, 30 Douglas fir, planting of seedlings 86, 92 E Eclaircies par le haut 132 Ecological fa ctors S Elm. planting of seedlings 83 Elms, planting of seeds 53 Englemann's .Spruce, planting of seedlings 91 Evenaged forms 141 Evenaged wood .'!() f Fall planting 69 fertilizing in nurseries 75 final cuttings 112 final stage 112 firs, planting of seedlings 85, 91 Firs, planting of seeds 56 Floral zones 11 Food in the soil 13 Forest gardens 74 Forest pas! ure 170 Forest regions of I '. S IS Forms of coppice foresl 158, 159 forms of high foresi 136, 14:: fruit-raising in the inns) 173 G ( lenesis of high forest 41 Gum, planting of seeds 50 Grafted forms 137 (iron]), definition of ' 25 II Hair-dressing of groups L 15, 122 Seat and tree growth 10, 38 Heat in soil 13 Hemlock .planting of seedlings 80, 93 Hemlock, planting of seeds 59 179 i x l) E \. PAGE Hickories, planting of seeds 54 Hickory coppice 1G1 Hickory, high forest of 148 Hickory j planting of seedlings 84, 89 Horizontal distribution of species 30 Humus 14, 1G I Improvement cutting 127, 129, 157. ir>-"> Intolerant species 32, 22, 24 J • lack Pine, planting of seedlings 85, 90 L Larch, planting of seeds 59 Latitude and tree growth 37 Lawson's Cypress, planting of seedlings sii. 92 Lawson's Cypress, planting of seeds GO Layering 156 Leaf canopy 16 Leaf-mosaic 9 Light and tree growth 8, 39 Light-demanders 32, 33, 34 Liu lit -demanding leaves 9 Linden, planting of seedlings 87 Linden, planting of seeds 55 Locust coppice 161 Locust, planting of seedlings 87 Locust, planting of seeds 54 Al Manteuffel's nursery method so Maple, high forest of 151 Maple, planting of seeds 53 Maple, planting of seeds 53 Messmates, classification of 29 Messmateship, degree of 25 Mexican forest 20 Mixed woods 34, 35, 40 Mixed woods, advantages of 35 Mixed woods, disadvantages of 30 180 INDEX. PAGE Mixed woods, rules for mixing 36 Moisture and tree growth 10, 38 Mound planting 68 Mycorrhiza 15 N Natural seed regeneration after lumbering 99 Natural seed regeneration, difficulties of 94 Natural seed regeneration, help to 95 Natural seed regeneration, methodology of 97 North American Sylva 17 Nurseries 72, 84 Nurseries, protection in 78 O Oak coppice 1 60 Oak coppice under standards 170 ( >ak. high forest of 146 Oaks, planting of seedlings 81 ( inks, planting of seeds 50 < teier culture 162 < )vcr\vood 163 P Pacific forest 21 Pasture 110. 114. 120. 120 Pedagogy of coppice foresl 157. 158 Pedagogy of coppice under standards 164 Pedagogy of high foresl 127 Planting, advisability in U. S 41, 42 Planting dagger 66 Planting hammer 6/ Planting, historically 41 Planting in furrows and in holes 65 Planting in prairies 71 Planting in squares, triangles, quadrilaterals 61 Planting under sod-cover 67 Pollarding 158, 159 Prairie planting 71 Preparatory cutting 109 Preparatory stage 109 Primeval forest 14'i 181 INDEX. PAGE Primeval forms 136, 137 Protection of seed plantations 49 Pruning 127, 130, 158, 165 Pure woods 25, 34 Purpose of regeneration in America 126 Q Qualities of soil 14. 39 Quality of soil and its influence on number of trees 27 Quantity of seed required per acre 47 R Red Cedar, planting of seedlings 86, 93 Red Cedar (Thuja plicata I, planting of set ds 60 Regeneration of aristocrats and of mob 125, 141 Reinforcing . . 49 Rootpruning 7s Rootsuckers 156 Rotation 29 Rotation of crops : 15 Rotation of forest crops 127 Ruling species 25, 26 S Sassafras, planting of m edlings 84 Sassafras, planting of seeds ')'■> Sea -, m for planting seedlings 09 ^Season for seed planting 48 Second growth forms 130 Seebaeh's modified high forest 143 Seeding cutting 110 Seeding stage 110 Seed, indications of good qualities of 42, 43 Seed-planting 43, 46, 48 Seedlings, age, size and number of 63 Seedlings, criteria of good 62 Seedlings from wildwoods 72 Seedlings, lifting of 64 Seedlings, planting of 60, 65 Seedlings, transportation of 64 Seed-planting in nurseries 70 Seed-planting in rills or broadcast 70 182 I X I) E X. PAGE Seed, quantity required pei acre ' ... 47 Seed tests 43 s 1 years 42 Selection type 105 Shadebearei - 32, ::::. :; t Shade-bearing leaves 9 Bhelterw 1 compartment type 108 Shelterw 1 group type 115 Shelters 1 selection type ....... 117 Shelterw 1 — T 1- i 1 • type.. 114 Shelterwood types 106 Sitka Spruce, planting "i Beedlinga 9] Size-classes -t trees Snow ami t grow t li Sod-ashes ;., Soil, air and water 111 ... 12 Soil-covers ... 15 Soil, heal and t" I in ... 13 Soil-species . ... 13 Speed of foresl extension 1 1 Spring planting 69 Spruce, high foresl ..i . 152 Spruce, planting "t Beedlinga Spruce, planting <>i seeds 57 Standards 1 13, 139, 1 12 Struct lire of -"il ... 12 Stump-planting, advantages of ... 60 Stumpshoots 155 Subtropical foresl 19, 20, 21 Summer temperature and tree growth 37 Suppressed 29 T Tanbark i;i Thinnings 127. 130, 136, lii". Tolerant Bpecies ::2. ::::. .".I Two-storied coppice 159 Two-storied high foresl 139, 1 12 Toungya 12.;. 17. ; Transplanting in nurseries 7S Trimming in nurseries 79 Types of enesar 07 • IND E V U VM.V. Qnderplanting 127. 130 Underwood 163 Ushergrowl h 49 Vendibility influencing the form 138 W Wagener thinnings 133 Walnut, high forest of 149 Walnut, planting of seedlings 84, 87 Walnuts, planting of seeds 51 Wartenberg's planting iron 67 Water in soil 12 Weapons of species in struggle for existence ■ 2G Wedded forms 1 38 Weeding 127, 128, 157, 165 Weeding in nurseries 79 White Pine, high forest <»f 153 White Pine, planting of seedlings 85 White Pines, planting <>f seeds r 58 Willow coppice lt>2 Wind and tree growth ' 11, 39 Wintering of acorns 51 Y yellow Pine, planting of seedlings 84, 90 Yellow l'ines. high forest of 153 Yellow Poplar, planting of seedlings 83. Yellow Pines, planting of seeds 57 yellow Poplar, high forest of 150 Yellow Poplar, planting of seeds 56 1S4 UM LECTURES ON FOREST POLICY By C. A. SCHENCK, Ph.D. Director of the Biltmore Forest School, and Forester to the Bilrmore Estate, N. C. Second Part FORESTRY CONDITIONS IN THE UNITED STATES." Biltmore Forest School, Directors' Office. Biltmore, N. C, January I, 1904. Dear Sir — My lectures on Forest Policy appear in print, pri- marily, for the benefit of the students attending the Biltmore For- est School. Forestal text-books fit for American use not being available, I have been forced, for a number of years, to lengthily dictate the essence of my lectures. The following pages merely record the dictation. They are not intended for public sale. I most sincerely request, dear sir, that you may lend me your aid in checking and correcting the data concerning your State, namely, , given on page f. f., so that this little volume, duly filed and controlled by collabora- ting friends, may thereafter publicly appear, in a better garment and improved contents, for the benefit of the American student of forestry. Thanking you for any kindness that you may deem fit to show me in connection with the improvement of my lectures on ''Forest Policy," I am, dear sir, Most truly yours, LECTURES ON FOREST POLICY By C. A. SCHENCK, Ph.D. Director of the Biltmore Forest School, and Forester to the Biltmore Estate, N. C. FORESTRY CONDITIONS OF ALABAMA: i. Area: 38,300 square miles, or 74% of total area, are wooded. 2. Physiography: The Cumberland Mountains force the Tennessee River into Alabama, where it forms a huge curve. The Appalachian Mountains send a double chain of mountains, in a northeast to southwest direction, from Chattanooga to Birming- ham. Tombigby River and Alabama River join just before emp- tying into Mobile Bay. Chattahoochee River on Georgia line. Southern section of State undulating, swamps alternating with slightly elevated dunes. Mountains near Birmingham bear coal and iron. 3. Distribution: The southern third of the State is oc- cupied by long leaf and Cuban pine; the former on dry, the latte